The wildlife of Tanzania refers to the flora and fauna of Tanzania. Tanzania contains some 20 percent of the species of Africa’s large mammal population, found across its 14 national parks, reserves, conservation areas and marine parks, spread over an area of more than 42,000 square kilometres (16,000 sq mi) and forming more than one-third of the country's territory.[1] Wildlife resources of Tanzania are described as "without parallel in Africa" and "the prime game viewing country". Serengeti National Park, the largest declared park area of 14,763 square kilometres (5,700 sq mi), is located in northern Tanzania and is famous for its extensive migratory herds of wildebeests and zebra while also having the reputation as one of the great natural wonders of the world. Ngorongoro Conservation Area, established in 1959 with an area of 8,094.4 square kilometres (3,125.3 sq mi), listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site,[2] is inhabited by the Masai. Its Ngorongoro Crater is known as the "largest intact caldera in the world".[3][4]
The national parks are also part of the wetlands of Tanzania. The wild animals tend to be closer to the wetlands, particularly the water loving species such as the hippopotamus, waterbuck, warthog, elephant, crocodile, sitatunga as well as water birds such as flamingoes and ducks.[5]
From the days of the colonial era and even after Tanzania became an independent nation, wildlife conservation has remained the prerogative of the government. Under this structure, the use of the wildlife resources by the community has always been restrictive, more of exclusion from the reserved parks and game sanctuaries which account for about 26% of the land area of Tanzania. This restriction had caused increase of rural poverty levels which resulted in extensive poaching. However, in recent years, corrective actions have been initiated by the Tanzania National Parks Authority (TANAPA) to involve the local community in conservation efforts, which is aimed at contribution to local economies by way of equitable benefits sharing.[6]
The wildlife resources in Tanzania provide an annual income of US$30 million to the national exchequer, and an income of US$9 million as revenue from the leasing companies. Illegal hunting is estimated to be worth US$ 50 million. In the 1990s, exports of 1.68 million birds, 523,000 reptiles, 12,000 mammals and 148,000 amphibians occurred, in addition to an increase in wildlife related tourism by about 30%. Fishery resources have also contributed richly to the export revenue of the country with export value of US$130 million reported in 2003, with export of Nile perch accounting for a major share of US$100 million.[6]
Tanzania’s wildlife, extolled as the "finest safari experiences and wildlife spectacles found anywhere on the planet", has 40 national parks and game reserves.[7] There are 14 national parks covering a total area of 42,235 square kilometres (16,307 sq mi). These parks are Arusha National Park (137 square kilometres (53 sq mi)), Gombe Stream National Park (52 square kilometres (20 sq mi)), Katavi National Park (4,471 square kilometres (1,726 sq mi)), Mount Kilimanjaro National Park (755 square kilometres (292 sq mi)), Kitulo National Park (442 square kilometres (171 sq mi)), Mahale Mountains National Park (1,613 square kilometres (623 sq mi)), Lake Manyara National Park (330 square kilometres (130 sq mi)), Mikumi National Park(3,230 square kilometres (1,250 sq mi)), Ruaha National Park (10,300 square kilometres (4,000 sq mi)), Rubondo Island National Park (240 square kilometres (93 sq mi)), Saadani National Park (1,062 square kilometres (410 sq mi)), Serengeti National Park (14,763 square kilometres (5,700 sq mi)), Tarangire National Park (2,850 square kilometres (1,100 sq mi)) and Udzungwa Mountains National Park (1,990 square kilometres (770 sq mi).[1] Apart from the national parks, a very notable wildlife area in Tanzania is the Ngorongoro Conservation Area which was recognized by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site in 1959. The criteria cited for this recognition are for its uniqueness in revealing sequence of crucial evidence related to human evolution, the striking landscape of Ngorongoro Crater (the largest unbroken caldera in the world) combined with its large concentration of wildlife, overlying ecosystems and its wildlife population of more than 25,000 ungulates.[2]
Arusha National Park, termed the "safari capital" of Northern Tanzania with the Arusha town located within its precincts, is spread over an area of 137 square kilometres (53 sq mi). It is within the riverine, lacustrine and palustrine wetland ecosystem. Its habitat encompasses montane forests within the terrestrial topography of rocky cliffs and peaks of Mount Meru, Africa's firth highest peak (4,566 metres (14,980 ft)) as part of the park, and with peaks of Mount Kilimanjaro 50 kilometres (31 mi) away, alpine deserts, Momela lakes, marshy lands, Pangani system, Ngurdoto Crater, rolling grassy hills and wooded savannah. Most prominent floral species in these habitats are the Spanish moss and giant lobelias. Wild animals reported in large numbers are the chimpanzee and red-hot pokers. Water birds are also concentrated in large numbers in the lake areas and, in particular are the flamingos. The park is easily accessible (one hour drive from Arusha town) and the Kilimanjaro International Airport is 60 kilometres (37 mi) away.[4][5][8]
The smallest of all of Tanzania's national parks is Gombe Stream National Park, covering an area of 52 square kilometres (20 sq mi) only. Its natural topography consists of steep hill slopes, river valleys and the sandy northern shores of Lake Tanganyika. It is drained by the Gombe River. The celebrated animals in the park are primates, mostly of chimpanzees, beach comber olive baboons, red-tailed monkeys and red colobus monkeys. Jane Goodall, the British researcher, started a study of wild chimpanzees in this park, in 1960. The study has reported 150 chimps, which are familiar with humans. The park has a rich bird life with 200 reported bird species; particular mention is made of the fish eagle and Peter’s twin spots. Access to the park is only through boats from Kibirizi.[9][10]
Katavi National Park spread over an area of 4,471 square kilometres (1,726 sq mi) is Tanzania’s third largest national park, in the remote southwest of the country. Its geographic setting is in a truncated arm of the East African Rift that terminates in Lake Rukwa. It is an integral part of the riverine and palustrine wetland ecosystem. The Katuma River and associated floodplains, Katavi Swamp system, marshy lakes and brachystegia woodland are part of its habitat. Eland, sable and roan antelopes are found in large numbers, and its marshy lakes have a large population of hippos and crocodiles. Elephants, buffaloes, giraffe, zebra, impala and reedbuck are a common sight in the park.[5][11]
As the name implies, Mount Kilimanjaro gives its name to the park. It is the highest peak on the African continent at 5,895 m elevation and is also the tallest free-standing mountain in the world near the coastal scrub land (900 metres (3,000 ft)) which virtually provides a "climatic world tour, from the tropics to the Arctic" vegetation recorded consists of thick Montana forests cultivated foot slopes, mosses and lichen, giant lobelias. The park, established in 1977, encompasses an area of 755 km2 and is within the riverine and palustrine ecosystem. Chala Crater Lake is within park area. The park’s wild animals are elephants, leopards, buffaloes, the endangered Abbott's Duiker (Cephalophus spadix also known as Minde in Swahili), and other small antelopes and primates. There is hardly any game viewing in this park. However, it is popular for mountaineering expeditions to climb the snow clad peaks, the twin peaks of Kibo and Mawenzi (Volcanic cones) and to witness the Afro-montane moorland habitat. It is one of the most visited parks in Tanzania. The nearest town to the park is Moshi, which is 128 square kilometres (49 sq mi) from Arusha.[4][5][12][13]
Kitulo National Park is Tanzania’s newest national park. It has an area of 442 square kilometres (171 sq mi) in the Kitulo Plateau – local name 'Bustani ya Mungu' meaning "The Garden of God" – in Southern Tanzania. The montane grassland with rich water resources is at an elevation of about 2,600 metres (8,500 ft). It is hemmed between the rugged peaks of the Kipengere, Poroto and Livingstone Mountains and has volcanic soils, and is drained by the Ruaha River. Botanists have termed the floral richness of the park as "Serengeti of Flowers"; 350 species of vascular plants, including 45 varieties of terrestrial orchids form its rich botanical treasure. Apart from the orchids, other species of flora reported are; yellow-orange red-hot Poker, a number of aloes, proteas, geraniums, giant lobelias, lilies and aster daisies; 30 species of aster daisies are endemic to southern Tanzania. In view of its rich floral abundance, the park is a gazetted area. Wild animals are few and mostly mountain reedbuck and eland. Bird life is also very widely watched by ornithologists and consists mainly of Denham’s bustard, endangered Blue Swallow, mountain marsh widow, Njombe cisticola and Kipengere Seedeater. Other endemic species of wild life consist of butterflies, chameleons, lizards and frogs. The park’s headquarters is located at Matamba inside the park, which is 100 kilometres (62 mi) from Mbeya town.[14]
Mahale Mountains National Park, next to the Gombe Stream National Park is set on the shores of the Lake Tanganyika with a watershed comprising richly forested Mahale Mountains with its peaks as high as 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) above the lake shore. Nkungwe peak (2,460 metres (8,070 ft)) is the park’s largest mountain in the Mahale range which is venerated by the local Tongwe people. Vegetation consists of high grassy ridges spread with alpine bamboo. Located in a remote and not easily approachable area, the park is spread over an area of 1,613 square kilometres (623 sq mi). Among the wild animals found here, chimpanzees are a star attraction with a reported population of about 800. Other primates found in large numbers are the red colobus, red-tailed and blue monkey. The unpolluted clear water lake, the second deepest lake in Tanzania, has as many as 1,000 fish species.[15]
Lake Manyara National Park, which encompasses an area of 330 square kilometres (130 sq mi) includes 200 square kilometres (77 sq mi) (at high water stage) of Lake Manyara, an alkaline lake, below the 600 metres (2,000 ft) high rift valley; Ernest Hemingway called this lake “the loveliest I had seen in Africa”. The geography of the park is seen formed by the serrated blue volcanic peaks that rise from the extensive Maasai steppes. It lies within the riverine and palustrine wetland ecosystem. Vegetation in the park consists of wild ground water forests, grassy plains, ancient forests of mahogany trees and acacia woodland. Wild animals seen are troops of baboons, blue monkeys, bushbuck, giraffes, tree climbing lions, squadrons of banded mongoose, Kirk's Dik-dik and pairs of klipspringer. Elephants, which were nearing extinction in 1980s due to poaching, have been well conserved now. Bird life of 400 species are recorded in the park and on any given day at least 100 of them could be sighted – large number of pink-hued flamingoes, water birds such as pelicans, cormorants and storks. The entry gate to the park is 126 kilometres (78 mi), west of Arusha from Mto wa Mbu, an ethnic town. The park is also connected by charter or scheduled flights from Arusha via Serengeti and Ngorongoro Crater. Recent activities in the park relate to "canoeing, mountain biking, walking and abseiling" It is located between Lake Victoria and the Arusha-Dodoma Road.[4][5][16]
Mikumi National Park covers an area of 3,230 square kilometres (1,250 sq mi) (the fourth largest park in the country) in a 75,000 square kilometres (29,000 sq mi) tract of wilderness that extends east, close to the Indian Ocean. It borders in the north with the Selous Game Reserve, which is the largest such reserve in Africa. The habitat has the Mkata floodplain, extensive grass plains with the Mkata River flowing through the park and the miombo-covered foothills of the mountains. It lies within the riverine and palustrine wetland ecosystem. Acacia tree plantations are extensive. Animal life consists of herd of zebras, lions in the grassy vastness, wildebeest, impala, buffalo herds, giraffes, elands, kudu, sable and hippos in water ponds (5 kilometres (3.1 mi) north of the main entrance gate). Antelope, and elephants are also seen. Bird species recorded are 400, which includes lilac-breasted roller, yellow-throated longclaw and bateleur eagle. It is connected by a 283 kilometres (176 mi) road with Dar es Salaam, via Selous Reserve, Ruaha, Udzungwa and Katavi.[5][17]
Ruaha National Park is a large area 10,300 square kilometres (4,000 sq mi). It is Tanzania’s second largest park of rugged, semi-arid bush country, typical of central Tanzania. The Ruaha River flows through the park and gets flooded during the rainy season, otherwise remaining an ephemeral stream with ponds, sand and rocky river bed and banks. It lies within riverine and palustrine wetland ecosystem. Open grasslands, the acacia savannah and the Usangu plains abound in the park. There are reportedly 10,000 elephants, zebras, giraffes, impala, waterbuck and other antelopes, cheetahs, striped and spotted hyena, sable and roan antelope sable and roan antelope, greater kudu with corkscrew horns (which is the park’s emblem) in the park. Of the reported 450 bird species, notable ones are the crested barbet (yellow-and-black bird), endemics such as the Yellow-collared Lovebird and ashy starling. It is located 128 km west of Iringa.[5][18] (p 20-21)
Rubondo Island National Park is an island park with an area of 240 square kilometres (93 sq mi). It is located in northwest Tanzania, 150 kilometres (93 mi) west of Mwanza. It includes nine smaller islands. It is in the lacustrine wetland ecosystem on the shores of the Lake Victoria. Known as a "water wonderland", it is fish breeding ground; tilapia, yellow-spotted otters and Nile perch (as heavy as 100 kilograms (220 lb)) are some of the special species.[5][19]
Humid forests (about 90%) dominate the park habitat while the remaining area consist of open grassland and lakeside papyrus beds. The virgin forests of the islands have large number of tree species of tamarinds, Wild Palms, Sycamore figs, papyrus swamps, the lake shore forests.[19]
Mammal species abound in this remote and not easily accessible park and consist of indigenous species of hippos, vervet monkeys, genets and mongooses, which coexist with introduced species of chimpanzee, black-and-white colobus, elephant and giraffe, bushbucks, shaggy-coated aquatic sitatunga. Fish eagles are seen near the bay and so also crocodiles.[19]
Saadani National Park, a game reserve since 1960s, was declared a national park in 2002, covers an area of 1,062 square kilometres (410 sq mi) including the former Mkwaja ranch area, the Wami River and the Zaraninge forest. It is the only park in East Africa with an Indian Ocean beachfront. It is Tanzania's 13th National Park. Animals are seen basking along the Indian Ocean shores. Before it was declared a national park it was maintained by the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) with the objective to preserve the last coastal rainforest in the country. It was also run as a cattle ranch between 1952 and 2000.[20][21] A zoological garden was also established as part of the park. Hunting lodges had also been established on the coastal front of the park, which catered to the celebrities who came here for hunting game and to be away from the busy life in Dare es Salam.[22]
The climate in this sea coast fronted park is hot and humid. Marine and mainland flora and fauna reported in the park are of 30 species of large mammals, reptiles and birds; elephants, black and white colobus monkeys and Roosevelt sable antelope are some of the terrestrial species, while the marine or coastal species noted are many species of fish, Green turtles which breed on the beaches, dolphins (pomboo) and Humpback whales (nyangumi).[21][22]
Serengeti National Park is the oldest and most popular national park which was established in—with an area of 14,763 square kilometres (5,700 sq mi). The habitat, bounded by Kenya and bordered by Lake Victoria on the west, is characterized by plains, savannah, wooded hills and large termite mounds, rivers and acacia woodlands. The spectacular wildlife witnessed in the park is of a million wildebeest seen in 40 square kilometres (15 sq mi) long columns migrating across the rivers to the north, over a distance of 1,000 square kilometres (390 sq mi), after spending three weeks of mating and giving birth to 8,000 calves daily. This migration and life cycle creation is an annual feature witnessed in the park. This migration is in unison with 200,000 zebra and 300,000 Thomson’s gazelle in search of grazing pastures, aptly described as "six million hooves pound the open plains". Other mammals seen here in buffaloes, elephants, giraffe, large number of elands, topis, kongonis, impalas and Grant’s gazelles. The predators inhabiting the park are golden-maned lion prides, leopards, African jackal, spotted hyena and Serval cat. Reptiles seen are Agama lizards and rock hyraxes. Bird species recorded are more than 500, which include ostrich and secretary bird. 100 varieties of dung beetle are also reported.[23]
Tarangire National Park is the sixth largest national park in Tanzania named after the Tarangire River which flows through the park and is a perennial river that assures water to both humans and animals even during the dry period. It has an area of 2,850 square kilometres (1,100 sq mi) to the south east of Lake Manyara. Mammals in the park are a number of elephants and migratory wildebeest, zebra, buffalo, impala, gazelle, hartebeest and eland. Predators seen are the tree climbing lions and leopards. The most common reptile seen is African pythons climbing the baobab trees. The park has 550 breeding species of birds stated to be the largest number in any park in the world; Kori bustard (heaviest flying bird), the stocking-thighed ostrich (world's largest bird), ground hornbills, yellow-collared lovebird, rufous-tailed weaver and ashy starling which are endemic to savanna habitat are seen in the park. Termite mounds, dwarf mongoose and pairs of red-and-yellow barbets are a common sight in the park. It is accessed by road from the southwest of Arusha over a distance of 18 kilometres (11 mi). Airlinks are also available from airports at Arusha and the Serengeti.[24][25]
Udzungwa Mountains National Park is part of the Eastern Arc Mountains (with an area of 10,000 square kilometres (3,900 sq mi) comprising mountain ranges from Taita Hills in Southern Kenya to the Makambako Gap in South central Tanzania) or the African Galapagos, extends over an area of 1,990 square kilometres (770 sq mi) with hill ranging in elevation between 250 metres (820 ft) in the Park and 2,576 metres (8,451 ft) of Lohomero peak (highest in the park). The park's habitat covers tropical rainforest, mountain forest, miombo woodland, grassland and steppe. The park has the distinction of holding 30–40 percent of plants and animal species of Tanzania. More than 400 bird species, 2500 plant species (25% of which are endemics) and 6 primate species are reported from the park. It has the second largest biodiversity of a national park with in Africa. It is included in the list of 34 "World Biodiversity Hotspot". It is also listed as one of the 200 WWF Eco regions of global critical importance. Six primate species have been recorded, five of which are endemic. The Iringa Red Colobus and Sanje Crested Mangabey are only found in the Udzungwa Mountains National Park, the mangabey species was undetected by biologists prior to 1979.[26][27]
The floral diversity of wildlife in Tanzania in its national parks and game reserves is very rich as reflected from the fact that there are 11,000 plant species, particularly in woodland, montane and coastal habitats. In addition, there are 20 Biodiversity hotspots in the Eastern Arc Mountains; these biodiversity hotpots encompass a wide range of habitats starting with the mangrove forests in the coastal region, many "types of wetlands, floodplains, tropical forests, grass plains, savannah woodlands, lakes and rivers."[6] On the coast and islands there are coconut palms, bana plants and cashwew trees.[28]
In addition, there are three main types of forest represented in the country, which are Zanzibar-Inhambane lowland rain forest, Zanzibar-Inhambane transitional rain forest, and Zanzibar-Inhambane undifferentiated forest. Moist forests of Tanzania's Afromontane Region occur on its Eastern Arc mountains, on the volcanic mountains of Hanang, Kilimanjaro, Meru, and Rungwe, and the southwestern mountains of Mahali and Mbizi. The lush forests situated in the highlands and eastern coast of Tanzania are rich in endemic species with the Eastern Arc forests containing some 25–30% endemic species out of the estimated 2,000 plant species that occur there.[29] Bamboo and giant groundsels reaching up to 18 feet (6 metres) grow in the mountains regions.[28] Some of the plant species in the Eastern Arc Range are unique to Tanzania, such as the African violet (Saintpaulia), local name Usambara, and Impatiens, which are used widely as house plants.[30] Baobab studded landscape is widespread in Tarangire National Park. Miombo (means "moist" woodland) vegetation consisting of several species of Brachystegia tree is spread sparsely throughout the interior of the country, except in hilly regions.[28] Yellowwood, Cedar and thorny Acacia trees are common.[28] Grass lands form the dominant vegetation in the Serengeti plains, while savanna, bushland and thickets cover the central Tanzanian plateau. Wild flowers are found growing profusely in the Kitulo Botanical Garden in Kitulo National Park and Amani Nature Reserve.[30] The Kutali Botanical Garden, known locally as "Bustani ya Mungu" meaning "God's Garden" or the Serengeti of Flowers, is a storehouse of orchids and wild flowers (350 species of vascular plants reported); the flowers are in full bloom during October to April making the ground carpet shimmering in a display of attractive colours.[31] Zanzibar is noted for its spice plants, especially cloves.[28]
Plants are very important to the Tanzanians for curing ailments.[32] A 1989 survey of five villages in the East Usambara Mountains revealed that traditional doctors used 185 plants to treat 63 difference ferent diseases and conditions. A 1980 study of a village in the West Usambara Mountains revealed that 93 species of plants were used to treat 22 ailments such a pain, sores, parasites, coughs, eye infections and intestinal disorders.[32] These plants include species of the families of Acanthaceae, Amaranthaceae, Anacardiaceae, Annonaceae, Apocynaceae, Bignoniaceae, Boraginaceae, Capparidaceae, Combretaceae, Compositae, Euphorbiaceae, Labitae, Legiminosae, Rhamnaceae, Sapindaceae, Sterculiaceeae and Vitaceae.[32] Many villagers also cultivate plants domestically for the specific purposes of curing ailments.
The faunal diversity of wild life in Tanzania in its national parks and game reserves is also dramatic. There are 310 mammal species (fourth largest in Africa); 960 species of birds (third place in Africa); and many amphibians and reptiles, which are stated to form the fourth largest population in Africa.[6] The Endangered fauna species are; the black rhino; Uluguru Bushshrikes; hawksbill, green turtles, olive ridley turtle and leatherback turtles; red colobus monkeys; wild dogs; and Pemba flying foxes.[33] However, Lonely Planet also mentions a figure of 430 species of four million animals, and 60,000 insect species, 100 species of snakes and 25 species of reptiles, 1000 species of birds. More details of fauna species as reported by the Museum of Zoology of the University of Michigan, Bucknell University, Avibase data profiles and Birdlife International data profiles are the following. In the East Usambara Mountains, the forests display many rare species, so much so that the fauna found here have been compared to the Galapagos Islands in terms of biological importance.[34]
Three hundred species of mammals have been reported in Tanzania.[35][36] Some of the species reported are: African bush elephant (Loxodonta africana), Burchell's zebra (Equus burchellii), Thomson's gazelle (Eudorcas thomsonii), hartebeest (Alcelaphus buselaphus), woodland dormouse (Graphiurus murinus), kipunji (Rungwecebus kipunji), Thomas's bushbaby (Galago thomasi), Prince Demidoff's bushbaby (Galago demidoff), puku (Kobus vardonii), gerenuk (Litocranius walleri), common warthog (Phacochoerus africanus), pygmy scaly-tailed flying squirrel (Idiurus zenkeri), suni (Neotragus moschatus), mbarapi (Hippotragus niger) and North African crested porcupine (Hystrix cristata).
A few predators species are:[36] lion (Panthera leo), spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta), black-backed jackal (Canis mesomelas) and serval (Leptailurus serval).
Some of the primate species reported are:[36] chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes), and baboons (Papio): anubis baboon (Papio anubis), yellow baboon (Papio cynocephalus), and hamadryas baboon (Papio hamadryas).
As of March 2004, according to the Avibase data base, the number of bird species in Tanzania were reported as 1112 species (according to Bird Life international it is 1128[37]), 23 endemic species, 35 globally threatened species and 3 introduced species.[38] The conservation status of Grey Crowned Cranes found in wetland-grassland habitats of Eastern and Southern Africa including Tanzania is listed as vulnerable.[39][40]
Endemic species are:[38] Yellow-collared Lovebird (Agapornis personatus), Pemba Green Pigeon (Treron pembaensis), Pemba Scops-owl (Otus pembaensis), Usambara Eagle-Owl (Bubo vosseleri), Beesley's Lark (Chersomanes beesleyi), Mrs. Moreau's Warbler (Scepomycter winifredae), Usambara Hyliota (Hyliota usambarae), Usambara Akalat (Sheppardia montana), Iringa Akalat (Sheppardia lowei), Rubeho Akalat (Sheppardia aurantiithorax), Banded Sunbird (Anthreptes rubritorques), Moreau's Sunbird (Nectarinia moreaui), Rufous-winged Sunbird (Nectarinia rufipennis), Tanzania Seedeater (Serinus melanochrous), Rufous-tailed Weaver (Histurgops ruficauda), Kilombero Weaver (Ploceus burnieri), Tanganyika Masked-Weaver (Ploceus reichardi) and Usambara Weaver (Ploceus nicolli).
Introduced species are:[38] Rock Pigeon (Columba livia) and House Crow (Corvus splendens).
Poaching and anthropological pressure to meet the huge demand of wildlife meat has been a major problem in Tanzania with reported removal of 160,000 to 200,000 animals annually in the 1990s. The Government of Tanzania, in collaboration with international aid agencies, has made serious efforts to contain this problem through wildlife law enactment and enforcement, and finding solutions to the conflict between wild life conservation and the needs of rural communities dependent on these resources. Anti-poaching operations have been conducted on several occasions and game-viewing tourism has been a success in the easily accessible northern wildlife area of the country. Trophy hunting has also provided some respite to the problem and this has helped in generating revenue, generally in the northern, southern and western wildlife areas.[3]
|
|||||||||||