In mathematical logic, a well-formed formula, shortly wff, often simply formula, is a word (i.e. a finite sequence of symbols from a given alphabet) which is part of a formal language.[1] A formal language can be considered to be identical to the set containing all and only its formulas.
A formula is a syntactic formal object that can be informally given a semantic meaning.
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A key use of formulas is in propositional logic and predicate logics such as first-order logic. In those contexts, a formula is a string of symbols φ for which it makes sense to ask "is φ true?", once any free variables in φ have been instantiated. In formal logic, proofs can be represented by sequences of formulas with certain properties, and the final formula in the sequence is what is proven.
Although the term "formula" may be used for written marks (for instance, on a piece of paper or chalkboard), it is more precisely understood as the sequence being expressed, with the marks being a token instance of formula. It is not necessary for the existence of a formula that there be any actual tokens of it. A formal language may thus have an infinite number of formulas regardless whether each formula has a token instance. Moreover, a single formula may have more than one token instance, if it is written more than once.
Formulas are quite often interpreted as propositions (as, for instance, in propositional logic). However formulas are syntactic entities, and as such must be specified in a formal language without regard to any interpretation of them. An interpreted formula may be the name of something, an adjective, an adverb, a preposition, a phrase, a clause, an imperative sentence, a string of sentences, a string of names, etc.. A formula may even turn out to be nonsense, if the symbols of the language are specified so that it does. Furthermore, a formula need not be given any interpretation.
The formulas of propositional calculus, also called propositional formulas,[2] are expressions such as . Their definition begins with the arbitrary choice of a set V of propositional variables. The alphabet consists of the letters in V along with the symbols for the propositional connectives and parentheses "(" and ")", all of which are assumed to not be in V. The formulas will be certain expressions (that is, strings of symbols) over this alphabet.
The formulas are inductively defined as follows:
This definition can also be written as a formal grammar in Backus–Naur form, provided the set of variables is finite:
Using this grammar, the sequence of symbols
is a formula, because it is grammatically correct. The sequence of symbols
is not a formula, because it does not conform to the grammar.
A complex formula may be difficult to read, owing to, for example, the proliferation of parentheses. To alleviate this last phenomenon, precedence rules are assumed among the operators, making some operators more binding than others. For example, assuming the precedence (from most binding to least binding) 1. 2. 3. 4. . Then the formula
may be abbreviated as
This is, however, only a convention used to simplify the written representation of a formula.
The definition of a formula in first-order logic is relative to the signature of the theory at hand. This signature specifies the constant symbols, relation symbols, and function symbols of the theory at hand, along with the arities of the function and relation symbols.
The definition of a formula comes in several parts. First, the set of terms is defined recursively. Terms, informally, are expressions that represent objects from the domain of discourse.
The next step is to define the atomic formulas.
Finally, the set of formulas is defined to be the smallest set containing the set of atomic formulas such that the following holds:
If a formula has no occurrences of or , for any variable , then it is called quantifier-free. An existential formula is a formula starting with a sequence of existential quantification followed by a quantifier-free formula.
An atomic formula is a formula that contains no logical connectives nor quantifiers, or equivalently a formula that has no strict subformulas. The precise form of atomic formulas depends on the formal system under consideration; for propositional logic, for example, the atomic formulas are the propositional variables. For predicate logic, the atoms are predicate symbols together with their arguments, each argument being a term.
According to some terminology, an open formula is formed by combining atomic formulas using only logical connectives, to the exclusion of quantifiers.[3] This has not to be confused with a formula which is not closed.
A closed formula, also ground formula or sentence, is a formula in which there are no free occurrences of any variable. If A is a formula of a first-order language in which the variables v1, ..., vn have free occurrences, then A preceded by v1 ... vn is a closure of A.
In earlier works on mathematical logic (e.g. by Church[4]), formulas referred to any strings of symbols and among these strings, well-formed formulas were the strings that followed the formation rules of (correct) formulas.
Several authors simply say formula.[5][6][7][8] Modern usages (especially in the context of computer science with mathematical software such as model checkers, automated theorem provers, interactive theorem provers) tend to retain of the notion of formula only the algebraic concept and to leave the question of well-formedness, i.e. of the concrete string representation of formulas (using this or that symbol for connectives and quantifiers, using this or that parenthesizing convention, using Polish or infix notation, etc.) as a mere notational problem.
However, the expression well-formed formulas can still be found in various works,[9][10][11] these authors using the name well-formed formula without necessarily opposing it to the old sense of formula as arbitrary string of symbols so that it is no longer common in mathematical logic to refer to arbitrary strings of symbols in the old sense of formulas.
The expression "well-formed formulas" (WFF) also pervaded in popular culture. Indeed, WFF is part of an esoteric pun used in the name of "WFF 'N PROOF: The Game of Modern Logic," by Layman Allen,[12] developed while he was at Yale Law School (he was later a professor at the University of Michigan). The suite of games is designed to teach the principles of symbolic logic to children (in Polish notation).[13] Its name is an echo of whiffenpoof, a nonsense word used as a cheer at Yale University made popular in The Whiffenpoof Song and The Whiffenpoofs.[14]