Varroa destructor
Varroa destructor is an external parasitic mite that attacks honey bees Apis cerana and Apis mellifera. The disease caused by the mites is called varroatosis.
Varroa destructor can only replicate in a honey bee colony. It attaches at the body of the bee and weakens the bee by sucking hemolymph. In this process RNA viruses such as the deformed wing virus (DWV) spreads to bees. A significant mite infestation will lead to the death of a honey bee colony, usually in the late autumn through early spring. The Varroa mite is the parasite with the most pronounced economic impact on the beekeeping industry. It may be a contributing factor to colony collapse disorder (CCD), as research shows it is the main factor for collapsed colonies in Ontario, Canada.[1]
Physical description
The adult mite is reddish-brown in color; has a flat, button shape; is 1–1.8 mm long and 1.5–2 mm wide; and has eight legs.
Reproduction, infection and hive mortality
Mites reproduce on a 10-day cycle. The female mite enters a honey bee brood cell. As soon as the cell is capped, the Varroa mite lays eggs on the larva which hatch into several females and typically one male. The young mites hatch in about the same time as the young bee develops and leave the cell with the host. When the young bee emerges from the cell after pupation the Varroa mites also leave and spread to other bees and larvae. The mite preferentially infests drone cells.
The adults suck the "blood" of adult honey bees for sustenance, leaving open wounds. The compromised adult bees are more prone to infections. With the exception of some resistance in the Russian strains and Varroa sensitive hygiene (VSH) developed by the USDA, the European Apis mellifera bees are almost completely defenseless against these parasites (Russian honey bees are one third to one half less susceptible to mite reproduction).[2]
The model for the population dynamics is exponential growth when bee brood are available and exponential decline when no brood is available. In 12 weeks the number of mites in a Western honey bee hive can multiply by (roughly) 12. High mite populations in the autumn can cause a crisis when drone rearing ceases and the mites switch to worker larvae, causing a quick population crash and often hive death.
Varroa mites have been found on flower feeding insects such as the bumblebee Bombus pennsylvanicus, the scarab beetle Phanaeus vindex and the flower-fly Palpada vinetorum.[3] Although the Varroa mite cannot reproduce on these insects, its presence on them may be a means by which it spreads short distances (phoresy).
Introduction around the world
As of the second half of 2011, Australia was thought to be free of the mite.[7] In early 2010, an isolated sub-species of bee was discovered in Kufra (south-eastern Libya) that appears to be free of the mite.[8]
Identification
Varroa destructor was, until recently, thought to be a closely related mite species called Varroa jacobsoni. Both species parasitize the Asian honey bee, Apis cerana. However, the species originally described as V. jacobsoni by Anthonie Cornelis Oudemans in 1904 is not the same species that also attacks Apis mellifera. The jump to mellifera probably first took place in the Philippines in the early 1960s where imported Apis mellifera came into close contact with infected Apis cerana. Up until 2000, scientists had not identified Varroa destructor as a separate species. This late identification in 2000 by Anderson and Trueman corrected some previous confusion and mislabeling in the scientific literature.[9]
Control or preventive measures and treatment
Chemical measures
Varroa mites can be treated with commercially available miticides. Miticides must be applied carefully to minimize the contamination of honey that might be consumed by humans. Proper use of miticides also slows the development of resistance of the mites.
Synthetic chemicals
Natural occurring chemicals
Physical or mechanical methods
Varroa mites can also be controlled through non-chemical means. Most of these controls are intended to reduce the mite population to a manageable level, not to eliminate the mites completely.
- Many beekeepers use a screened bottom board on their hives. When mites occasionally fall off a bee, they must climb back up to parasitize a new bee. If the beehive has a screened floor with mesh the right size, the mite will fall through and can not return to the beehive. The screened bottom board is also being credited with increased circulation of air which reduces condensation in a hive during the winter. (Studies at Cornell University done over two years found that screened bottoms have no measurable effect at all. Northeast Beekeeper Vol 1 #1 Jan 2004)
- Screened bottom board with sticky board. It separates mites that fall through the screen and the sticky board prevents them from crawling back up.
- Small cell foundation (4.9 mm across—about 0.5 mm smaller than standard) is believed to limit the space in each cell that Varroa mites have in which to inhabit and also to enhance the difference in size between worker and drone brood with the intention of making the drone comb traps more effective in trapping Varroa mites. Small cell foundation has staunch advocates though controlled studies have been generally inconclusive.
- Comb trapping is an advanced method that removes capped brood from the hive, where the Varroa mites breed. The queen is confined to comb A using a comb cage. After nine days the queen is confined to a new comb—comb B—and the brood in comb A is left to be reared. Nine days later the brood in comb A—now capped and infested with Varroa mites—is removed. The queen is then removed from comb B and placed on to comb C, with the brood in comb B left to be reared. Nine days later comb B is removed and the queen is excluded from comb B. Nine days later comb C is removed. This complex method can remove up to 80% of Varroa mites in the hive.
Behavioral methods
- Powdered sugar (Dowda method), talc or other "safe" powders with a grain size between 5 and 15 micrometres can be sprinkled on the bees. The powder does not harm the bees (and, in the case of sugar, can even become a small food source), but does interfere with the mite's ability to maintain its hold on the bee. It is also believed to increase the bees' grooming behavior. This causes a certain percentage of mites to become dislodged. Powdered sugar works best as an amplifier of the effects of a screened bottom board.
- Freezing drone brood takes advantage of Varroa mites' preference for longer living drone brood. The beekeeper will put a frame in the hive that is sized to encourage the queen to lay primarily drone brood. Once the brood is capped, the beekeeper removes the frame and puts it in the freezer. This kills the Varroa mites that are feeding off of those bees. It also kills the drone brood, but most hives produce an excess of drone bees so it is not generally considered a loss. After freezing, the frame can be returned to the hive. The nurse bees will clean out the dead brood (and dead mites) and the cycle continues.
- Drone brood excision is a variation applicable to top bar hives. Honey bees tend to place comb suitable for drone brood along the bottom and outer margins of the comb. Cutting this off at a late stage of development ("purple eye stage") and discarding it reduces the mite load on the colony. It also allows for inspection and counting of varroa on the brood.
- Swarming or queen-arrest method. By interrupting the honey bee brood cycle, mites reproduction is also blocked.
- Hygienic behavior. Hygienic behavior is biological behavior with genetic traits that can be bred into bees. This behavior causes bees to smell infected brood and remove them before the infestation spreads further.[12]
Genetic engineering
Researchers have been able to use RNA interference to knockout genes in the Varroa mite.[13]
Varroatosis
The infection and subsequent parasitic disease caused by varroa mites is called varroatosis. Its treatment has been of limited success. First the bees were medicated with fluvalinate which had about 95% mite falls. However the last five percent became resistant to it and later, almost immune. Fluvalinate was followed by coumaphos.
See also
References
- ^ Ernesto Guzmán-Novoa, Leslie Eccles, Yireli Calvete, Janine Mcgowan, Paul G. Kelly & Adriana Correa-Benítez (2009). "Varroa destructor is the main culprit for the death and reduced populations of overwintered honey bee (Apis mellifera) colonies in Ontario, Canada" (PDF). Apidologie 41 (4): 443–450. doi:10.1051/apido/2009076. http://www.apidologie.org/articles/apido/pdf/first/m09037.pdf.
- ^ J. Raloff (August 8, 1998). Russian queens bee-little mites' impact. 154. Science News. p. 84. http://www.sciencenews.org/pages/sn_arc98/8_8_98/fob1.htm.
- ^ Peter G. Kevan, Terence M. Laverty & Harold A. Denmark (1990). "Association of Varroa jacobsoni with organisms other than honeybees and implications for its dispersal". Bee World 71 (3): 119–121.
- ^ Helen M. Thompson, Michael A. Brown, Richard F. Ball & Medwin H. Bew (2002). "First report of Varroa destructor resistance to pyrethroids in the UK" (PDF). Apidologie 33 (4): 357–366. doi:10.1051/apido:2002027. http://www.apidologie.org/articles/apido/pdf/2002/04/Thompson.pdf.
- ^ "Varroa Mite, Varroa destructor". MAF Biosecurity New Zealand. June 30, 2009. http://www.biosecurity.govt.nz/pests/varroa. Retrieved February 24, 2011.
- ^ Nina Wu (April 25, 2007). "Bee mites have spread on Oahu". Honolulu Star-Bulletin. http://starbulletin.com/2007/04/25/business/story02.html. Retrieved February 24, 2011.
- ^ Debra Jopson (August 18, 2010). "It's a bee nuisance - and food growers are more than a mite scared". The Sydney Morning Herald. http://www.smh.com.au/environment/its-a-bee-nuisance--and-food-growers-are-more-than-a-mite-scared-20100817-128ls.html.
- ^ "Honigbienenart in der Sahara entdeckt [Honey bee species discovered in the Sahara]" (in German). Die Zeit. July 2010. http://www.zeit.de/wissen/umwelt/2010-07/biene-sahara-oase. Retrieved February 24, 2011.
- ^ D. L. Anderson & J. W. H. Trueman (2000). "Varroa jacobsoni (Acari: Varroidae) is more than one species". Experimental and Applied Acarology 24 (3): 165–189. doi:10.1023/A:1006456720416. PMID 11108385.
- ^ Mark Ward (March 8, 2006). "Almond farmers seek healthy bees". BBC News. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/4780034.stm. Retrieved May 2, 2009.
- ^ Natalia Damiani, Liesel B. Gende, Pedro Bailac, Jorge A. Marcangeli & Martín J. Eguaras (2009). "Acaricidal and insecticidal activity of essential oils on Varroa destructor (Acari: Varroidae) and Apis mellifera (Hymenoptera: Apidae)". Parasitology Research 106 (1): 145–152. doi:10.1007/s00436-009-1639-y. PMID 19795133.
- ^ "A Sustainable Approach to Controlling Honey Bee Diseases and Varroa Mites". SARE. http://www.sare.org/publications/factsheet/0305_01.htm. Retrieved 2008-11-18.
- ^ Victoria Gill (December 22, 2010). "Genetic weapon developed against honeybee-killer". BBC News. http://news.bbc.co.uk/earth/hi/earth_news/newsid_9306000/9306572.stm. Retrieved February 24, 2011.
Further reading
External links