Tai languages
The Tai or Zhuang–Tai[1] languages (Thai: ภาษาไต transliteration: p̣hās̛̄ātay) are a branch of the Tai–Kadai language family. The Tai languages include the most widely spoken of the Tai–Kadai languages, including standard Thai or Siamese, the national language of Thailand; Lao or Laotian, the national language of Laos; Burma's Shan language; and Zhuang, a major language in southern Chinese province of Guangxi.
Name
Cognates with the name Tai (Thai, Dai, etc.) are used by speakers of many Tai languages. The term Tai is now well-established as the generic name in English. Several Lao linguists have objected to this, opining that Siamese Thai should be considered a Lao language, but that hasn't made much headway in English usage. Because Tai and Thai, the national language of Thailand, are homonyms, some linguists continue to use Siamese for the latter. Similarly, the terms Dai and Daic have fallen somewhat out of favor as the name for the entire family, with forms based on Kadai now more common.[2]
Many of the languages are called Zhuang in China and Nung in Vietnam.
History
Citing the fact that both the Zhuang and Thai peoples have the same exonym for the Vietnamese, kɛɛuA1,[3] Jerold A. Edmondson of the University of Texas, Arlington posited that the split between Zhuang (a Central Tai language) and the Southwest Tai languages happened no earlier than the founding of Jiaozhi (交址) in Vietnam in 112 BCE but no later than the 5th–6th century.[4]
Internal classification
Tai has traditionally been divided into Northern, Central, and Southwestern (Thai) branches. However, Central Tai does not appear to be a valid group.
Ethnologue
The list below is organized roughly according to Ethnologue.[5]
Other Tai languages are Kuan (Laos), Rien (Laos), Tai Do (Viet Nam), Tai Pao (Laos), Tay Khang (Laos); geographically, these would all appear to be Southwestern.
Pittayaporn (2009)
Overview
In a 2009 Ph.D. dissertation, Pittayawat Pittayaporn, currently a professor of linguistics at Chulalongkorn University, classifies the Tai languages in a recursive-like fashion based on shared phonological innovations (Pittayaporn 2009:298). In Pittayaporn's classification system, the Zhuang dialects of Chóngzuǒ (崇左) in Guangxi have the most internal diversity. Only the Southwestern Tai branch remains unchanged from Fang-Kuei Li's 1977 classification system, and several of the Southern Zhuang languages of Ethnologue are shown to be paraphyletic. The classification is as follows, along with the names of the Zhuang languages found in Ethnologue:[6]
| Tai |
A
(Zuojiang–Southwest) |
| E |
| G (Nung–Thai) |
| K |
| O (Sapa–Thai) |
|
|
| P (Tai-Nung) |
Tày/Nung of Bảo Yên, Tày/Nung of Cao Bang, Dai Zhuang of Wenma (文马)
|
|
|
|
| L (Yang-Nung) |
Yang Zhuang of Debao (德保), Yang Zhuang of Jingxi (靖西),
Nung: Western, Dai Zhuang of Wenshan (文山), Nong Zhuang of Yanshan (砚山)
|
|
|
|
| H |
Zuojiang Zhuang of Daxin (大新), Zhuang of Longming (龙明)
|
|
|
|
| F |
Zuojiang Zhuang of Longzhou (龙州), Zhuang of Leiping
|
|
|
|
B
(Ningming) |
Ningming Mingjiang (Zuojiang Zhuang of Ningming 宁明)
|
|
C
(Chongzuo) |
Yongnan Zhuang of Chongzuo (崇左), Yongnan Zhuang of Shangsi (上思), Caolan of Vietnam
|
|
D
(Yongnan–Northern) |
| I (Qinzhou) |
Yongnan Zhuang of Qinzhou (钦州)
|
|
| J |
|
|
|
|
|
|
Sound changes
The following phonological shifts occurred in the Q (Southwestern), N (Northern), B (Ningming), and C (Chongzuo) subgroups (Pittayaporn 2009:300-301).
Proto-Tai Reflexes
| Proto-Tai |
Subgroup Q
Reflex[7] |
Subgroup N
Reflex[8] |
Subgroup B
Reflex |
Subgroup C
Reflex |
| *ɤj, *ɤw, *ɤɰ |
*aj, *aw, *aɰ |
*i:, *u:, *ɯ: |
*i:, *u:, *ɯ: |
- |
| *ɯj, *ɯw |
*i:, *u:[9] |
*aj, *aw[10] |
*i:, *u: |
- |
| *we, *wo |
*e:, *o: |
*i:, *u: |
*e:, *o:[11] |
*e:, *o:[12] |
| *ɟm̩.r- |
*br- |
*ɟr- |
- |
*ɟr- |
| *k.t- |
- |
*tr- |
- |
*tr- |
| *ɤn, *ɤt, *ɤc |
- |
*an, *at, *ac[13] |
- |
- |
Furthermore, the following shifts occurred at various nodes leading up to node Q.
- E: *p.t- > *p.r-; *ɯm > *ɤm
- G: *k.r- > *qr-
- K: *e:, *o: > *ɛ:, *ɔ:
- O: *ɤn > *on
- Q: *kr- > *ʰr-
Reconstruction
Proto-Tai has been reconstructed in 1977 by Fang-Kuei Li and by Pittayawat Pittayaporn in 2009.[14]
Proto-Southwestern Tai has also been reconstructed in 1977 by Fang-Kuei Li and by Nanna L. Jonsson in 1991.[15]
Proto-Tai Pronouns
|
|
Proto-Tai |
Thai script |
| 1st |
singular |
*ku |
กู |
| dual (exclusive) |
*pʰɯa |
เผือ |
| plural (exclusive) |
*tu |
ตู |
| Incl. |
dual (inclusive) |
*ra |
รา |
| plural (inclusive) |
*rau |
เรา |
| 2nd |
singular |
*mɯŋ |
มึง |
| dual |
*kʰɯa |
เขือ |
| plural |
*su |
สู |
| 3rd |
singular |
*man |
มัน |
| dual |
*kʰa |
ขา |
| plural |
*kʰau |
เขา |
Comparison
Below is comparative table of Tai languages.
| English |
Proto-Thai[16] |
Siamese |
Lao |
Lanna |
Isan |
Shan |
Tai Lü |
Standard Zhuang |
| air |
*lom |
/lōm/ |
/lóm/ |
/lōm/ |
/lom/ |
/lóm/ |
/lôm/ |
/ɣum˧˩/ |
| city |
*mɯaŋ |
/mɯ̄aŋ/ |
/mɯ́aŋ/ |
/mɯ̄aŋ/ |
/mɯaŋ/ |
/mɤ́ŋ/ |
/mɤ̂ŋ/ |
/mɯŋ˧/ |
| earth |
*?din |
/dīn/ |
/dìn/ |
/dīn/ |
/din/ |
/lǐn/ |
/dín/ |
/dei˧/ |
| fire |
*vai/aɯ |
/fāj/ |
/fáj/ |
/fāj/ |
/faj/ |
/pʰáj/ or /fáj/ |
/fâj/ |
/fei˧˩/ |
| heart |
*čai/aɯ |
/hǔa tɕāi/ |
/hǔa tɕài/ |
/hǔa tɕǎi/ |
/hua tɕai/ |
/hǒ tsǎɰ/ |
/hó tɕái/ |
/sim/ |
| love |
*rak |
/rák/ |
/hāk/ |
/hák/ |
/hak/ |
/hâk/ |
/hak/ |
/gyai˧˩/ |
| water |
*naam |
/náːm/ |
/nâm/ |
/nám/ |
/nam/ |
/nâm/ |
/nà̄m/ |
/ɣaem˦˨/ |
Further reading
- Brown, J. Marvin. From Ancient Thai to Modern Dialects. Bangkok: Social Science Association Press of Thailand, 1965.
- Chamberlain, James R. A New Look at the Classification of the Tai Languages. [s.l: s.n, 1972.
- Conference on Tai Phonetics and Phonology, Jimmy G. Harris, and Richard B. Noss. Tai Phonetics and Phonology. [Bangkok: Central Institute of English Language, Office of State Universities, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, 1972.
- Diffloth, Gérard. An Appraisal of Benedict's Views on Austroasiatic and Austro-Thai Relations. Kyoto: Center for Southeast Asian Studies, Kyoto University, 1976.
- Đoàn, Thiện Thuật. Tay-Nung Language in the North Vietnam. [Tokyo?]: Instttute [sic] for the Study of Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa, Tokyo University of Foreign Studies, 1996.
- Gedney, William J. On the Thai Evidence for Austro-Thai. [S.l: s.n, 1976.
- Gedney, William J., and Robert J. Bickner. Selected Papers on Comparative Tai Studies. Michigan papers on South and Southeast Asia, no. 29. Ann Arbor, Mich., USA: Center for South and Southeast Asian Studies, University of Michigan, 1989. ISBN 0891480374
- Gedney, William J., Carol J. Compton, and John F. Hartmann. Papers on Tai Languages, Linguistics, and Literatures: In Honor of William J. Gedney on His 77th Birthday. Monograph series on Southeast Asia. [De Kalb]: Northern Illinois University, Center for Southeast Asian Studies, 1992. ISBN 1877979163
- Gedney, William J., and Thomas J. Hudak. (1995). William J. Gedney's central Tai dialects: glossaries, texts, and translations. Michigan papers on South and Southeast Asia, no. 43. Ann Arbor, Mich: Center for South and Southeast Asian Studies, University of Michigan ISBN 0891480757
- Gedney, William J., and Thomas J. Hudak. William J. Gedney's the Yay Language: Glossary, Texts, and Translations. Michigan papers on South and Southeast Asia, no. 38. Ann Arbor, Mich: Center for South and Southeast Asian Studies, University of Michigan, 1991. ISBN 0891480668
- Gedney, William J., and Thomas J. Hudak. William J. Gedney's Southwestern Tai Dialects: Glossaries, Texts and Translations. Michigan papers on South and Southeast Asia, no. 42. [Ann Arbor, Mich.]: Center for South and Southeast Asian Studies, University of Michigan, 1994. ISBN 0891480749
- Hudak, Thomas John. William J. Gedney's The Tai Dialect of Lungming: Glossary, Texts, and Translations. Michigan papers on South and Southeast Asia, no. 39. [Ann Arbor]: Center for South and Southeast Asian Studies, University of Michigan, 1991. ISBN 0891480676
- Li, Fang-kuei. The Tai Dialect of Lungchow; Texts, Translations, and Glossary. Shanghai: Commercial Press, 1940.
- Østmoe, Arne. A Germanic-Tai Linguistic Puzzle. Sino-Platonic papers, no. 64. Philadelphia, PA, USA: Dept. of Asian and Middle Eastern Studies, University of Pennsylvania, 1995.
- Sathāban Sūn Phāsā Qangkrit. Bibliography of Tai Language Studies. [Bangkok]: Indigenous Languages of Thailand Research Project, Central Institute of English Language, Office of State Universities, 1977.
- Shorto, H. L. Bibliographies of Mon–Khmer and Tai Linguistics. London oriental bibliographies, v. 2. London: Oxford University Press, 1963.
- Tingsabadh, Kalaya and Arthur S. Abramson. Essays in Tai Linguistics. Bangkok: Chulalongkorn University Press, 2001. ISBN 9743472223
Notes and references
- ^ Diller, 2008. The Tai–Kadai Languages.
- ^ Diller (2008)
- ^ A1 designates a tone.
- ^ Edmondson, Jerold A. The power of language over the past: Tai settlement and Tai linguistics in southern China and northern Vietnam. Studies in Southeast Asian languages and linguistics, Jimmy G. Harris, Somsonge Burusphat and James E. Harris, ed. Bangkok, Thailand: Ek Phim Thai Co. Ltd. http://ling.uta.edu/~jerry/pol.pdf (see page 15)
- ^ http://www.ethnologue.com/show_family.asp?subid=841-16
- ^ Pittayaporn, Pittayawat. 2009. The Phonology of Proto-Tai. Ph.D. dissertation. Department of Linguistics, Cornell University.
- ^ Unless indicated otherwise, all phonological shifts occurred at the primary level (node A).
- ^ Unless indicated otherwise, all phonological shifts occurred at the primary level (node D).
- ^ Also, the *ɯ:k > *u:k shift occurred at node A.
- ^ Innovation at node N
- ^ For node B, the affected Proto-Tai syllable was *we:, *wo:.
- ^ For node C, the affected Proto-Tai syllable was *we:, *wo:.
- ^ Innovation at node J
- ^ http://language.psy.auckland.ac.nz/austronesian/language.php?id=698
- ^ http://language.psy.auckland.ac.nz/austronesian/language.php?id=684
- ^ Thai Lexicography Resources
- Ostapirat W (2000). "Proto-Kra." In Linguistics of the Tibeto-Burman Area 23(1).
- Ethnologue report Retrieved 1 December 2010.
See also
External links