| Michael Servetus | |
|---|---|
| Era | Renaissance |
| Born | 29 September 1511 Villanueva de Sigena, Spain |
| Died | 27 October 1553 (aged 42) Geneva, Switzerland |
| Occupation | Theologian, physician, cartographer |
| Main interests | Theology, medicine |
| Notable ideas | Nontrinitarian Christology |
Michael Servetus (also Miguel Servet or Miguel Serveto also Miguel De Villanueva or Michel De Villeneuve;[1][2] 29 September 1511 – 27 October 1553) was a Spanish theologian, physician, cartographer, and humanist. He was the first European to correctly describe the function of pulmonary circulation. His interests included many sciences: mathematics, astronomy and meteorology, geography, human anatomy, medicine and pharmacology, as well as jurisprudence, and the scholarly study of the Bible in its original languages. He is renowned in the history of several of these fields, particularly medicine and theology. He participated in the Protestant Reformation, and later developed a nontrinitarian Christology. Condemned by Catholics and Protestants alike, he was arrested in Geneva and burnt at the stake as a heretic by order of the Protestant Geneva governing council.
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Servetus was born as Miguel Serveto Conesa (family nickname "Revés") at Villanueva de Sijena, Huesca, Aragon, Spain, in 1511, probably on 29 September, the feast day of Saint Michael,[3] although no specific record exists. Some sources give an earlier date based on Servetus' own occasional claim of having been born in 1509.[4] His paternal ancestors came from the hamlet of Serveto, in the Aragonese Pyrenees, which gave the family their surname. Michael aroused Calvin's suspicions about his Jewish heritage, but it took more than 450 years to confirm that his maternal line descended from Jewish conversos of the Monzón area, demonstrated in 1999 by the scholar Gonzalez Echeverria.[5][6][7] This confirms his Jewish-converso origin, for it is the maternal line that grants Jewish status. His father Antonio Serveto (alias Revés, i.e. "Reverse") was a notary. Servetus had two brothers: one who later became a notary like their father, and another who was a Catholic priest.[3]
Servetus was gifted in languages and could have studied Latin, Greek and Hebrew under the instruction of Dominican friars.[8] There is no official document that supports the contention that Servetus learned Hebrew at the Castle of Montearagón. In fact, according to expert Hebraists from Jerusalem, Servetus' Hebrew was "a Mediterranean Hebrew",[9] one that would have been impossible to learn only from studying the Bible. It is more likely Servetus' knowledge of Hebrew results from the influence of his Jewish converso family. At the age of fifteen, Servetus entered the service of a Franciscan friar by the name of Juan de Quintana,[10] an Erasmian. He read the entire Bible in its original languages from the manuscripts available at that time. Servetus later attended the University of Toulouse in 1526 where he studied law. There he became suspected of participating in secret meetings and activities of Protestant students.
Servetus' wide readings informed his thinking. In 1528, Servetus traveled through Germany and Italy with Juan de Quintana, who was then Charles V's confessor in the imperial retinue.[8] In October 1530 he visited Johannes Oecolampadius in Basel, staying there for about ten months, and probably supporting himself as a proofreader for a local printer. By this time, he was already spreading his beliefs. In May 1531 he met Martin Bucer and Wolfgang Fabricius Capito in Strasbourg.
Then two months later, in July 1531, Servetus published De trinitatis erroribus ("On the Errors of the Trinity"). The next year he published the work Dialogorum de Trinitate ("Dialogues on the Trinity") and the supplementary work De Iustitia Regni Christi ("On the Justice of Christ's Reign") in the same volume. He took on the pseudonym Michel de Villeneuve (i.e., "Michael from Villanueva"), to avoid persecution by the ecclesiastical authorities in power at the time because of these religious works. He studied at the Collège de Calvi in Paris in 1533. After an interval, Servetus returned to Paris to study medicine in 1536. In Paris, his teachers included Silvius, Fernel and Johann Winter von Andernach, who hailed him with Andrea Vesalius as his most able assistant in dissections.
After his studies in medicine, Servetus started a medical practice. He became personal physician to Pierre Palmier, Archbishop of Vienne, and was also physician to Guy de Maugiron, the lieutenant governor of Dauphiné. While he practiced medicine near Lyon for about fifteen years, he also published two other works dealing with Ptolemy's Geography. Servetus dedicated his first edition of Ptolemy and his edition of the Bible to his patron Hugues de la Porte. He dedicated his second edition of Ptolemy's Geography to his other patron, Archbishop Palmier. While in Lyon, Symphorien Champier, a medical humanist, had been Servetus' patron. Servetus wrote pharmacological tracts in defense of Champier against Leonhart Fuchs. Working also as a proof reader, he published several more books which dealt with medicine and pharmacology. Years earlier he had sent a copy to John Calvin, initiating a correspondence between the two. In the correspondence Michael does not write down any name (Michael Servetus/ Michael de Villeneuve) and Calvin uses the pseudonym "Charles d'Espeville". Servetus never signs nor says he is Michel de Villeneuve in this letters, though Calvin accuses him of saying it, in his letters written by his friend Guillaume de Trie. Calvin said he had proofs of Michel saying his true personality was "Servetus", and "Michel de Villeneuve" a pseudonym, but was never able to prove this, not even for the judgement of Vienne against Michel de Villeneuve. Considering that Calvin would have used this fact if it had been true, it might not be true, like when he accused Michael of being Castilian-Portuguese, a totally false idea. The royal document of French naturalization by the Chamber of Comptes of France, with eight witnesses and also inspected by the Royal Chancery of France, has been recovered, and required previous legal documentation of birth and identity from Spain, in which Michael says that his name is Michel de Villeneuve.[2]
In 1553 Servetus published yet another religious work with further anti-trinitarian views. It was entitled Christianismi Restitutio, a work that sharply rejected the idea of predestination and the idea that God condemned souls to Hell regardless of worth or merit. God, insisted Servetus, condemns no one who does not condemn himself through thought, word or deed.
To Calvin, who had written his summary of Christian doctrine Institutes of the Christian Religion, Servetus' latest book was an attack on his personally held theories regarding Christian belief, theories that he was attempting to put forth as "established Christian doctrine". Calvin sent a copy of his own book as his reply. Servetus promptly returned it, thoroughly annotated with critical observations. Calvin wrote to Servetus, "I neither hate you nor despise you; nor do I wish to persecute you; but I would be as hard as iron when I behold you insulting sound doctrine with so great audacity."
In time their correspondences grew more heated until Calvin ended it.[11] Servetus sent Calvin several more letters, to which Calvin took offense.[12] Thus, Calvin's antagonism against Servetus seems to have been based not simply on his views but also on Servetus's tone, which he considered inappropriate. Calvin revealed the intentions of his offended heart when he stated of Servetus, when writing to his friend William Farel on 13 February 1546:
| “ | Servetus has just sent me a long volume of his ravings. If I consent he will come here, but I will not give my word; for if he comes here, if my authority is worth anything, I will never permit him to depart alive ("Si venerit, modo valeat mea autoritas, vivum exire nunquam patiar").[13] | ” |
On 16 February 1553, Servetus, while in Vienne, was denounced as a heretic by Guillaume de Trie, a rich merchant who had taken refuge in Geneva— a very good friend of Calvin,[14]—in a letter sent to a cousin, Antoine Arneys, who was living in Lyon. On behalf of the French inquisitor Matthieu Ory, Servetus as well as Balthasard Arnollet, the printer of Christianismi Restitutio, were questioned, but they denied all charges and were released for lack of evidence. Arneys was asked by Ory to write back to De Trie, demanding proof. On 26 March 1553, the letters sent by Servetus to Calvin and some manuscript pages of Christianismi Restitutio were forwarded to Lyon by Trie. On 4 April 1553 Servetus was arrested by Roman Catholic authorities, and imprisoned in Vienne. He escaped from prison three days later. On 17 June, he was convicted of heresy by the French Inquisition, "thanks to the 17 letters sent by Jehan Calvin, preacher in Geneva"[15] and sentenced to be burned with his books. An effigy and his books were burned in his absence.
Meaning to flee to Italy, Servetus inexplicably stopped in at Geneva, where Calvin and his Reformers had denounced him. On 13 August, he attended a sermon by Calvin at Geneva. He was immediately recognized and arrested after the service[16] and was again imprisoned. All his property was confiscated. French Inquisitors asked that Servetus be extradited to them for execution. Calvin wanted to show himself as firm in defense of Christian orthodoxy as his usual opponents. "He was forced to push the condemnation of Servetus with all the means at his command."[16] Calvin's delicate health meant he did not personally appear against Servetus.[17] Nicholas de la Fontaine played the more active role in Servetus's prosecution and the listing of points that condemned him.
At his trial, Servetus was condemned on two counts, for spreading and preaching Nontrinitarianism and anti-paedobaptism (anti-infant baptism).[18] Of paedobaptism Servetus had said, "It is an invention of the devil, an infernal falsity for the destruction of all Christianity."[19] In the case the procureur général (chief public prosecutor) added some curious sounding accusations in the form of inquiries—the most odd sounding perhaps being, "whether he has married, and if he answers that he has not, he shall be asked why, in consideration of his age, he could refrain so long from marriage." To this oblique imputation of unchastity (or perhaps homosexuality), Servetus replied that rupture (inguinal hernia) had long since made him incapable of that particular sin. More offensive to modern ears might be the question "whether he did not know that his doctrine was pernicious, considering that he favours Jews and Turks, by making excuses for them, and if he has not studied the Koran in order to disprove and controvert the doctrine and religion that the Christian churches hold, together with other profane books, from which people ought to abstain in matters of religion, according to the doctrine of St. Paul."
Calvin believed Servetus deserving of death on account of what he termed as his "execrable blasphemies".[20] Calvin expressed these sentiments in a letter to Farel, written about a week after Servetus’ arrest, in which he also mentioned an exchange with Servetus. Calvin wrote:
| “ | ...after he [Servetus] had been recognized, I thought he should be detained. My friend Nicolas summoned him on a capital charge, offering himself as a security according to the lex talionis. On the following day he adduced against him forty written charges. He at first sought to evade them. Accordingly we were summoned. He impudently reviled me, just as if he regarded me as obnoxious to him. I answered him as he deserved... of the man’s effrontery I will say nothing; but such was his madness that he did not hesitate to say that devils possessed divinity; yea, that many gods were in individual devils, inasmuch as a deity had been substantially communicated to those equally with wood and stone. I hope that sentence of death will at least be passed on him; but I desired that the severity of the punishment be mitigated.[21] | ” |
As Servetus was not a citizen of Geneva, and legally could at worst be banished, the government, in an attempt to find some plausible excuse to disregard this legal reality, had consulted with other Swiss Reformed cantons (Zürich, Bern, Basel, Schaffhausen.) They universally favored his condemnation and suppression of his doctrine, but without saying how that should be accomplished.[22] Martin Luther had condemned his writing in strong terms. Servetus and Philip Melanchthon had strongly hostile views of each other. The party called the "Libertines", who were generally opposed to anything and everything John Calvin supported, were in this case strongly in favor of the execution of Servetus at the stake (while Calvin urged that he be beheaded instead). In fact, the council that condemned Servetus was presided over by Perrin (a Libertine) who ultimately on 24 October sentenced Servetus to death by burning for denying the Trinity and infant baptism.[23] When Calvin requested that Servetus be executed by decapitation as a traitor rather than by fire as a heretic, Farel, in a letter of 8 September, chided him for undue lenience.[24] The Geneva Council refused his request. On 27 October 1553 Servetus was burned at the stake just outside Geneva with what was believed to be the last copy of his book chained to his leg. Historians record his last words as: "Jesus, Son of the Eternal God, have mercy on me."[25]
Calvin agreed that those whom the ruling religious authorities determined to be heretics should be punished:
| “ | Whoever shall maintain that wrong is done to heretics and blasphemers in punishing them makes himself an accomplice in their crime and guilty as they are. There is no question here of man's authority; it is God who speaks, and clear it is what law he will have kept in the church, even to the end of the world. Wherefore does he demand of us a so extreme severity, if not to show us that due honor is not paid him, so long as we set not his service above every human consideration, so that we spare not kin, nor blood of any, and forget all humanity when the matter is to combat for His glory.[26] | ” |
Sebastian Castellio and countless others denounced this execution and became harsh critics of Calvin because of the whole affair.
Some other antitrinitarian thinkers began to be more cautious in expressing their views: Martin Cellarius, Lelio Sozzini and others either ceased writing or wrote only in private. The fact that Servetus was dead meant that his writings could be distributed more liberally, though others such as Giorgio Biandrata developed them in their own names.
The writings of Servetus had some influence on the beginnings of the Unitarian movement in Poland and Transylvania.[27] Piotr z Goniądza's advocacy of Servetus' views led to the separation of the Polish brethren from the Calvinist Reformed Church in Poland, and laid the foundations for the Socinian movement which fostered the early Unitarians in England like John Biddle.
In his first two books( De trinitatis erroribus, and Dialogues on the Trinity plus the supplementary De Iustitia Regni Christi) Servetus rejected the classical conception of the Trinity, stating that it was not based on the Bible. He argued that it arose from teachings of (Greek) philosophers, and he advocated a return to the simplicity of the Gospels and the teachings of the early Church Fathers that he believed pre-dated the development of Nicene trinitarianism. Servetus hoped that the dismissal of the trinitarian dogma would make Christianity more appealing to believers in Judaism and Islam, which had preserved the unity of God in their teachings. According to Servetus, trinitarians had turned Christianity into a form of "tritheism", or belief in three gods. Servetus affirmed that the divine Logos, the manifestation of God and not a separate divine Person, was incarnated in a human being, Jesus, when God's spirit came into the womb of the Virgin Mary. Only from the moment of conception, was the Son actually generated. Therefore the Son was not eternal, but only the Logos from which He was formed. For this reason, Servetus always rejected calling Christ the "eternal Son of God" but rather called him "the Son of the eternal God."[28] In describing Servetus' view of the Logos, Andrew Dibb explained: "In 'Genesis' God reveals himself as the creator. In 'John' he reveals that he created by means of the Word, or Logos. Finally, also in 'John', he shows that this Logos became flesh and 'dwelt among us'. Creation took place by the spoken word, for God said "Let there be ..." The spoken word of Genesis, the Logos of John, and the Christ, are all one and the same."[29]
Unitarian scholar Earl Morse Wilbur states, "Servetus' Errors of the Trinity is hardly heretical in intent, rather is suffused with passionate earnestness, warm piety, an ardent reverence for Scripture, and a love for Christ so mystical and overpowering that [he] can hardly find words to express it...Servetus asserted that the Father, Son and Holy Spirit were dispositions of God, and not separate and distinct beings.[30] Wilbur promotes the idea that Servetus was a modalist.
Servetus states his view clearly in the preamble to Restoration of Christianity (1553): "There is nothing greater, reader, than to recognize that God has been manifested as substance, and that His divine nature has been truly communicated. We shall clearly apprehend the manifestation of God through the Word and his communication through the Spirit, both of them substantially in Christ alone."[31] This theology, though original in some respects, has often been compared to Adoptionism, Arianism, and Sabellianism, all of which Trinitarian scholars rejected as heresies in their attempts to defend their belief that God exists eternally in three separate persons. Nevertheless, Servetus rejected these theologies in his books: Adoptionism, because it denied Jesus's divinity;[32] Arianism, because it multiplied the hypostases and established a rank;[33] and Sabellianism, because, at first glance, it seemingly confused the Father with the Son.[34]
The incomprehensible God is known through Christ, by faith, rather than by philosophical speculations. He manifests God to us, being the expression of His very being, and through him alone, God can be known. The scriptures reveal Him to those who have faith; and thus we come to know the Holy Spirit as the Divine impulse within us.[35]
Under severe pressure from Catholics and Protestants alike, Servetus clarified this explanation in his second book, Dialogues (1532), to show the Logos coterminous with Christ. He was nevertheless accused of heresy because of his insistence on denying the dogma of the Trinity and the individuality of three divine Persons in one God.
Because of his rejection of the Trinity and eventual execution by burning for heresy, Unitarians often regard Servetus as the first (modern) Unitarian martyr—though he was a Unitarian in neither the 17th-century sense of the term nor the contemporary sense. Other non-trinitarian groups, such as Jehovah's Witnesses,[36] and Oneness Pentecostalism,[37] also claim Servetus as a spiritual ancestor. Oneness Pentecostalism particularly identifies with Servetus' teaching on the divinity of Jesus Christ and his insistence on the oneness of God, rather than a Trinity of three distinct persons: "And because His Spirit was wholly God He is called God, just as from His flesh He is called man."[38]
Swedenborg wrote a systematic theology that had many similarities to the theology of Servetus.[39][40]
More recently Servetus' name has been given prominence by the originally anonymous author "Servetus the Evangelical".
In recent years Michael Servetus has also been credited with being one of the modern forerunners of freedom of religion and freedom of conscience in the Western world. A renowned Spanish scholar on Servetus' work, Ángel Alcalá, identified the radical search for truth and the right for freedom of conscience as Servetus' main legacies, rather than his theology.[41] The Polish-American scholar, Marian Hillar, has studied the evolution of freedom of conscience, from Servetus and the Polish Socinians, to John Locke and to Thomas Jefferson and the American Declaration of Independence. According to Hillar: "Historically speaking, Servetus died so that freedom of conscience could become a civil right in modern society."[42]
Servetus was the first European to describe the function of pulmonary circulation, although his achievement was not widely recognized at the time, for a few reasons. One was that the description appeared in a theological treatise, Christianismi Restitutio, not in a book on medicine. However, the sections in which he refers to anatomy and medicines demonstrate an amazing understanding of the body and treatments. Most copies of the book were burned shortly after its publication in 1553 because of persecution of Servetus by religious authorities. Three copies survived, but these remained hidden for decades.
It was not until William Harvey's publication of findings from his dissections in 1616 that the function of pulmonary circulation was widely accepted by physicians. Western historians of science have since learned that a separate discovery of pulmonary circulation was made in the 13th century by Ibn al-Nafis, who was born in 1213 A.D. in Damascus.[43] Because of limitations of culture and language, his discovery was not transmitted to Europe.
Servetus also contributed enormously to medicine with all his published works (two of his manuscripts were never published), the five lectures of his Universal explanation of the Syrups, the 277 marginalia and 20 notes of his two Discorides-Materia Medica, his marginalia in his edition of the Opera Omnia of Galen, his study on the syphilis in his Apology against Leonhart Fuchs and with the 224 new recipes of his pharmacopeia Dispensarium.
In Geneva, 350 years after the execution, remembering Servetus was still a controversial issue. In 1903 a committee was formed by supporters of Servetus to erect a monument in his honor. The group was led by a French Senator, Auguste Dide, an author of a book on heretics and revolutionaries which was published in 1887. The committee commissioned a local sculptor, Clothilde Roch, to do a statue showing a suffering Servetus. The work was three years in the making and was finished in 1907. However by then, supporters of Calvin in Geneva, having heard about the project, had already erected a simple stele in memory of Servetus in 1903, the main text of which served more as an apologetic for Calvin:
Duteous and grateful followers of Calvin our great Reformer, yet condemning an error which was that of his age, and strongly attached to liberty of conscience according to the true principles of his Reformation and gospel, we have erected this expiatory monument. Oct. 27, 1903
About the same time, a short street close by the stele was named after him.[44]
The city council then rejected the request of the committee to erect the completed statue, on the grounds that there was already a monument to Servetus. The committee then offered the statue to the French town of Annemasse, which in 1908 placed it in front of the city hall, with the following inscriptions:
“The arrest of Servetus in Geneva, where he did neither publish nor dogmatize, hence he was not subject to its laws, has to be considered as a barbaric act and an insult to the Right of Nations”. Voltaire
I beg you, shorten please these deliberations. It is clear that Calvin for his pleasure wishes to make me rot in this prison. The lice eat me alive. My clothes are torn and I have nothing for a change, nor shirt, only a worn out vest.” Servetus, 1553
In 1942, the Vichy Government took down the statue, as it was a celebration of freedom of conscience, and melted it. In 1960, having found the original molds, Annemasse had it recast and returned the statue to its previous place.[45]
Finally, on the 3rd of October 2011, Geneva erected a copy of the statue which it had rejected over 100 years before. It was cast in Aragon from the molds of Clothilde Roch's original statue. Rémy Pagani, former mayor of Geneva, inaugurated the statue. He previously had described Servetus as "the dissident of dissidents."Tribune de Geneve Representatives from the Roman Catholic Church in Geneva and the Director of Geneva's International Museum of the Reformation attended the ceremony. A Geneva newspaper noted the absence of officials from the National Protestant Church of Geneva, the church of John Calvin.[46]
In 1984, a Zaragoza public hospital changed its name from José Antonio to Miguel Servet. It is now a university hospital.
Most Spanish cities also include at least a street, square or park named after Servetus.
Only the dates of the first editions are included.
(demonstrated before the ISHM, the SSHM and the RAMC)
The Biblia Sacra Ex Postremis Doctorum has been proved to be a Michel de Villeneuve/Servetus work, on the protocols of Michel de Villeneuve with his printers and editors (Melchior and Gaspard Trechsel) and matching these with anonymous works of the same period of time in data, mention of characters, the locations and use of words, and contract requirements. Applying the same methods, the researcher and scholar on Michael Servetus, González Echeverría, has demonstrated before the International Society for the History of Medicine,[2][50][51][52][53] the Spanish National Society of History of Medicine,[54][55][56] and the Royal Academy of Medicine of Catalonia[57] that Michael wrote five previously unknown medical works (one of them posthumous), two Biblical works, and four grammatical translation works. Michael Servetus/de Villeneuve, who published almost annually for more than a decade from 1531 to 1542, did not stop publishing for the following 11 years. He did publish, but anonymously, because of the death sentence he got from the University of Paris in 1538.[49]
González Echeverría found these works through contracts Michel de Villeneuve made with the Company of Booksellers in Lyon in 1540. The Company of Booksellers comprised many editors and printers, particularly the Trechsel and Frellon brothers. These works include the Opera Omnia by Galen, thought not to exist, though the contracts existed. González Echeverría also found De Villeneuve's Spanish work of translation through the connection with the brothers Trechsel and the brothers Frellon, famous printers in Lyon. It was Jean Frellon himself who affirmed in the judgement of Vienne against Michael de Villeneuve that “Michel de Villeneuve had translated at his printing work various grammatical treatises from Latin to Spanish and had made a Spanish summary of St Thomas Aquinas.” [58]
Professor John M. Riddle, one of the foremosts experts on Dioscorides, from North Carolina State University, described both Dioscorides works from 1543 and 1554 as anonymous. After examining the work of González Echeverría, Riddle has accepted the authorship of Michael Servetus of the two Dioscorides.[49]
(Contracts with Frellon for the translation of Spanish-Latin works with many resemblances to the chosen Spanish terminology on the translation. Except in the case of La Andriana they are maybe aimed at teenager readers.)
1549 Andria. La Andriana.( Lovain, Sasseno/ widow of Byrckmann). Translation of the previous work of Charles Estienne. It is a work that appears at the same time as the previous one. Last known edition to date. It uses terminology similar to the previous mentioned work. There is an editorial relationship for spreading Spanish works between Byrckmann and Frellon. González Echeverría affirms: "Unfortunately, since there is not a previous nor subsequent edition by Frellon to date, very possibly it is a work by De Villeneuve/Servetus but we can not be sure of it."[49][53]