| Scaly-breasted Munia | |
|---|---|
| Adult L. p. punctulata in Kolkata, India | |
| Conservation status | |
| Scientific classification | |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Chordata |
| Class: | Aves |
| Order: | Passeriformes |
| Family: | Estrildidae |
| Genus: | Lonchura |
| Species: | L. punctulata |
| Binomial name | |
| Lonchura punctulata (Linnaeus, 1758) |
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| Synonyms | |
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Loxia punctulata |
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The Scaly-breasted Munia or Spotted Munia (Lonchura punctulata) known in the pet trade as Nutmeg Mannikin or Spice Finch is a sparrow-sized estrildid finch native to tropical Asia extending from India and Sri Lanka east to Indonesia and the Philippines. It has been introduced into many other parts of the world and has established in Puerto Rico and Hispaniola as well as parts of Australia and the United States of America. They are found in open habitats including gardens and agricultural fields where they forage in groups for grass seeds.
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The Scaly-breasted Munia is 11–12 cm long. The adult has a stubby dark bill, brown upperparts and darker brown head. The underparts are white with black scale markings. The sexes are similar, although males have darker markings on the underside and a darker throat. Immature birds have pale brown upperparts, lack the darker head and with uniform buff underparts can be confused with immatures of other munias such as the Tricoloured Munia.[2]
Populations within their wide distribution range show variations in plumage colour and size and about 11 subspecies are recognized. These include the nominate form found in the plains of South Asia (Pakistan, India, Nepal, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka). The name lineoventer was formerly used for the Indian population. Other populations include subundulata from the eastern Himalayas, yunnanensis of southern China, topela of Thailand, cabanisi of the Philippines and fretensis of Singapor and Sumatra. Island populations include nisoria (Java, Bali, Lombok, Sumbawa), particeps (Sulawesi), baweana (Bawean Island), sumbae (Sumba) and blasii (Flores, Timor and Tanimbar).
Scaly-breasted Munias are found in a range of habitas but are usually close to water and grassland. In India, they are especially common in paddy fields where they are considered a minor pest on account of their grain feeding. They are found mainly on the plains but are found in the foothills of the Himalayas although sometimes found up to an altitude of 2500 m and in the Nilgiris they are found in summer up to 2100 m. In Pakistan they are restricted to a narrow region from Swat in the west to Lahore avoiding the desert zone and occurring again in India east of a line between Ludhiana and Mount Abu.[3] It is rare in Kashmir.[4][5]
Outside their native range, escaped birds frequently establish themselves in areas with suitable climate. Escaped or introduced populations have been recorded in the West Indies (Puerto Rico since 1971[6]), Hawaii, Australia, Japan[7] and southern United States mainly in Florida and California.[8][9] In Oahu, Hawaii, they compete for habitats with Lonchura malacca and tend to be rare where the latter is present.[10]
The Scaly-breasted Munia is a small gregarious bird which feeds mainly on seeds but also takes small berries of Lantana and other plants.[11] They sometimes form large flocks of as many as 100 birds. Like some other munias, they sometimes feed on algae. They sometimes flick the tail while hopping about. The tail may be flicked laterally and sometimes vertically and will sometimes flick their wings as well. When roosting, they will set in close contact with each other. Birds in a flock will sometimes preen each other. The soliciting bird usually showing its chin. Allopreening is usually limited to just the face and neck.[12] The breeding season is during the rainy season (mainly June to August in India) but can breed at other times. The calls include a short whistle, variations on kitty-kitty-kitty and a sharp chipping alarm note. The song of the male is very soft but complex and variable and is audible only at close range. This song described as a jingle consists of a series of high notes followed by a croaky rattle and ending in slurred whistle.[12] When singing the male sits very erect with the head feathers raised. The nest is a large domed structure made of loose grass, bamboo or other leaves with a side entrance and placed in a tree or under the eaves of a house. A study in southern India found the preferred nesting trees to be Toddalia asiatica, Gymnosporia montana and Acacia chundra especially short and bushy ones in areas with low canopy cover. The nest opening is located along the most frequent wind direction.[13] In northern India, they preferred isolated Acacia nilotica in non-urban areas but Thuja orientalis and Polyalthia longifolia in urban areas.[14] The clutch is usually 4 to 6 but can be up to 10. Both sexes help build the nest and incubate the eggs. The eggs hatch after about 10 to 16 days.[5][15]
The ease of maintaining these birds in captivity has made them popular for studying behaviour and physiology. Studies on foraging have examined the effect of group size on reducing predator vigilance and increasing feeding efficiency. Time spent on vigilance is greatest among solitary individuals and reduces as the group size increases to about four.[16] Foraging birds may feed actively on the substrate or pick grain dropped on the ground and these strategies may be chosen according to the situation.[17] Laboratory studies have found that long day illumination and high humidity trigger gonadal growth.[18]
Origin and phylogeny has been obtained by Antonio Arnaiz-Villena et al.[19] Estrildinae may have originated in India and dispersed thereafter (towards Africa and Pacific Ocean habitats).