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Prosperity theology (sometimes referred to as the Prosperity gospel or Health and Wealth gospel)[A] is a Christian religious doctrine, which claims the Bible teaches that financial blessing is the will of God for Christians. The doctrine teaches that faith, positive speech, and donations to Christian ministries will always cause an increase in material wealth.
Prosperity theology teaches that it is part of the path to Christian dominion over society, arguing that God's promise to Israel of dominion applies to Christians today. The doctrine emphasizes the importance of personal empowerment, proposing that it is God's will for his people to be happy. The atonement is interpreted to include removal of sickness and poverty, viewed as curses to be broken by faith. This is believed to be achieved through visualization and positive confession, which is often taught in mechanical and contractual terms. This stems from an interpretation of the Bible as a contract between God and humans: if humans have faith in God, he will deliver his promises of security and prosperity. Confessing these promises to be true is perceived as an act of faith, which God will honor. The doctrine is often based on non-traditional interpretations of the Bible, with emphasis often on the book of Malachi. Prosperity churches are usually directed by a sole pastor or leader, although some have developed multi-church networks that bear similarities to denominations. They typically set aside extended periods of time to teach about giving and request donations from the congregation, encouraging positive speech and faith. Some prosperity churches also teach about financial responsibility, though some journalists and academics have criticized their advice as unsound.
Prosperity theology first came to prominence in the United States during the Healing Revivals of the 1950s, although commentators have linked the origins of its theology to the New Thought movement. The prosperity movement later figured prominently in the Word of Faith movement and 1980s televangelism. In the 1990s and 2000s, it was adopted by influential leaders in the Charismatic Movement and promoted by Christian missionaries throughout the world, sometimes leading to the establishment of mega-churches. Prominent leaders in the development of prosperity theology include E. W. Kenyon, Oral Roberts, A. A. Allen, T. L. Osborn, and Kenneth Hagin. Most prosperity churches are nondenominational.
Prosperity theology has been criticized by figures within the Pentecostal and Charismatic movements, and has come into conflict with other Christian denominations. Critics say that it is irresponsible, it promotes idolatry, and it is theologically unsound. Some critics have proposed that prosperity theology cultivates authoritarian organizations, with the leaders controlling the lives of the adherents. Prosperity theology has drawn followers from the middle class of America, and has become popular among the poor. It has been likened to other movements, including the Cargo Cult phenomenon, Traditional African religion, and Black liberation theology.
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Prosperity theology casts itself as the reclamation of true doctrine and thus part of a path to Christian dominion over secular society.[1] It teaches that God's promises of prosperity and victory to Israel in the Old Testament apply to Christians in the New Covenant today, with faith and holy actions releasing this prosperity. It maintains that Christians have been given power over creation because they are made in the image of God, teaching that positive confession allows Christians to exercise dominion over their souls and material objects around them.[2] C. Peter Wagner, a leader of the New Apostolic Reformation, has stated that his movement promotes the idea that, if Christians take dominion over aspects of society, the earth will experience "peace and prosperity".[3]
Teachers of prosperity theology focus on personal empowerment,[2] promoting a positive view of the spirit and body and teaching that people are entitled to happiness. Physical and spiritual realities are seen as one inseparable reality, so Christians are entitled to physical health and economic prosperity. Leaders of the movement view the atonement as a removal of sickness, poverty, and spiritual corruption;[4] poverty and illness are viewed as curses which can be broken by faith.[5] There are, however, some prosperity churches which seek a more moderate or reformed paradigm of prosperity.[6] Kirbyjon Caldwell, pastor of a Methodist mega-church, supports a theology of abundant life, teaching prosperity for the whole human being, which he sees as a path to combating poverty.[7][B]
Wealth is interpreted as blessing from God, obtained through a spiritual law of positive confession and visualization.[8] This process is often taught in almost mechanical terms;[2] Kenneth Copeland argues that prosperity is governed by laws,[9] with other teachers portraying the process formulaically.[4] Journalists David Van Biema and Jeff Chu of Time have described Creflo Dollar's teachings about prosperity as an inviolable contract between God and humanity.[7]
The prosperity theology teaching of positive confession stems from their view of scripture. The Bible is seen as a faith contract between God and believers; God is understood to be faithful and just, so it is up to believers to fulfill their end of the contract to receive God's promises. This leads to a belief in positive confession, the doctrine that believers may claim whatever they desire from God just by speaking it. Prosperity theology teaches that the Bible has promised prosperity for believers, so positive confession is believers speaking in faith what God has already spoken about them. Positive confession is practiced to bring about what is already believed in; faith itself is a confession, speaking it brings it into reality.[10]
The teaching is often based on non-traditional interpretations of Bible verses,[4] the Book of Malachi often being given special attention.[11] Frequently quoted verses include:
Prosperity churches place a strong emphasis the importance of giving. Services commonly include two sermons, one of which focuses on giving and prosperity, including Biblical references to tithing; a second sermon, on another topic, follows the offering. Prosperity church leaders usually bestow a specific blessing on the money being donated, and the congregation is sometimes instructed to hold the donations above their heads during the prayer.[14]
Congregants are encouraged to speak positive statements about aspects of their lives which they wish to be improved. These statements, known as positive confessions, are said to miraculously change aspects of people's lives, if the speaker has faith.[15] Prosperity churches also encourage people to "live without limits"[16] and to cultivate optimism about their lives.[17] T. D. Jakes has argued in favor of prosperity, rejecting the demonization of success. He saw poverty as a barrier to living a Christian life, suggesting that it is easier to make a positive impact on society when one affluent.[16]
Although many prosperity churches hold seminars on financial responsibility, Catherine Bowler of the Duke Divinity School has criticized the advice offered. Hanna Rosin of The Atlantic argues that prosperity theology contributed to the housing bubble that caused the late-2000s financial crisis. She maintains that home ownership was heavily emphasized in prosperity churches and that reliance on divine intervention caused people to make unwise choices.[12]
The early Pentecostal Movement did not embrace prosperity theology.[18] A recognizable form of the doctrine began to take shape within the movement in the 1940s and 1950s through the teachings of Pentecostal deliverance and healing evangelists. Combining prosperity teaching with revivalism and faith healing, these evangelists taught "the laws of faith ('ask and ye shall receive') and the laws of divine reciprocity ('give and it will be given back unto you')".[19]
One prominent early figure in prosperity theology was E. W. Kenyon. He was educated in the 1890s at Emerson College of Oratory, where he was exposed to the New Thought movement.[20] He later became connected with well-known Pentecostal leaders and wrote about supernatural revelation and positive declarations. His writing influenced leaders of the nascent prosperity movement during the post-war American healing revival.[21]
Oral Roberts began teaching prosperity theology in 1947.[13] He explained the laws of faith as a "blessing pact" in which God would return donations "seven fold",[22] and he promised that donors would receive the money they donated to him back from unexpected sources. He offered to return any donation that did not lead to an equivalent unexpected payment.[13] In the 1970s, Roberts characterized his blessing pact teaching as the "seed faith" doctrine: donations were a form of "seed" which would grow in value and be returned to the donor.[22][23] Roberts began recruiting "partners", wealthy donors who received exclusive conference invitations and ministry access in exchange for support.[24]
In 1953, A. A. Allen published The Secret to Scriptural Financial Success, and promoted merchandise such as prayer cloths anointed with "miracle oil" and "miracle tent shavings".[25] In the late 1950s Allen shifted his focus from faith healing to prosperity. He taught that faith could miraculously solve financial problems and claimed to have had a miraculous experience in which God supernaturally changed one-dollar bills into twenty-dollar bills to allow Allen to pay money that he owed.[26] Allen taught the "word of faith", or the power to speak something into being.[25]
In the 1960s, prosperity became a primary focus in healing revivals.[27] T. L. Osborn began emphasizing prosperity in the 1960s. He became known for his often ostentatious displays of personal wealth.[28] During that decade, Roberts and William Branham criticized other prosperity ministries, arguing that their fundraising tactics unfairly pressured attendees. These tactics were prompted in part by the expense involved in developing nationwide radio networks and campaign schedules.[27] At the same time, leaders of the Pentecostal Assemblies of God denomination often criticized the focus on prosperity taken by independent healing evangelists.[29]
From the 1960s, prosperity gospel teachers embraced televangelism and came to dominate religious programming. Oral Roberts led the way, developing a syndicated weekly program that became the most watched religious show in the United States. By 1968, television had supplanted the tent meeting in his ministry.[30]
In the 1980s, public attention in the United States was drawn to prosperity theology through the influence of prominent televangelists Jimmy Swaggart and Jim Bakker; each ran large, well known ministries which promoted prosperity theology. Their influence waned, however, after they were implicated in high-profile scandals:[7][C] In the aftermath, Trinity Broadcasting Network (TBN) emerged as the dominant force in prosperity televangelism, and the network brought Robert Tilton and Benny Hinn to prominence.[31]
Although nearly all of the healing evangelists of the 1940s and 50s taught that faith could bring financial rewards, a new prosperity-oriented teaching developed in the 1970s that differed from that taught by Pentecostal evangelists of the 1950s. This "Positive Confession" or "Word of Faith" movement teaches that a Christian with faith can speak into existence anything consistent with the will of God.[32] Kenneth Hagin has been credited with a key role in the expansion of prosperity theology. He founded the RHEMA Bible Training Center in 1974, and over the next 20 years, the school trained more than 10,000 students in his theology.[33][9] As is true of other prosperity movements, there is no theological governing body, and well-known ministries differ on some theological issues.[34] The teachings of Kenneth Hagin have been described by Candy Gunther Brown of Indiana University as the most "orthodox" form of Word of Faith prosperity teaching.[6]
The Neo-Pentecostal movement has been characterized in part by an emphasis on prosperity theology,[35] which began to gain greater acceptance within charismatic Christianity in the late 1990s.[1] As of 2006, three of the four largest churches in the United States have taught prosperity theology, and Joel Osteen has been credited with spreading it outside of the Pentecostal and Charismatic movement through his books, which have sold over 4 million copies.[7][D] Another popular book, The Prayer of Jabez, sold millions of copies and invited readers to seek their own prosperity.[5]
By the 2000s, adherents of prosperity theology in the United States were most common in the Sun Belt. In the late 2000s, proponents claimed that tens of millions of Christians accept prosperity theology.[12] A 2006 poll by Time Magazine reported that 17 percent of Christians in American said they identified with the movement,[36] which has been exported from the United States to Western Europe and less prosperous areas of the world.[4] There is no official governing body for the movement, though many ministries are unofficially linked.[9]
In 2007, U.S. Senator Chuck Grassley opened a probe into the finances of six televangelism ministries that promote prosperity theology. The six ministries under investigation were Kenneth Copeland Ministries, Creflo Dollar Ministries, Benny Hinn Ministries, Bishop Eddie Long Ministries, Joyce Meyer Ministries, and Paula White Ministries. In January 2011, Grassley concluded his investigation and stated that he believed self-regulation by religious organizations was preferable to government action.[37][E] Only the ministries led by Meyer and Hinn cooperated fully with the investigation; the other groups provided less information than investigators sought.[37]
In the 2000s, churches teaching prosperity theology saw significant growth in the third world.[38] According to Philip Jenkins, poor citizens of impoverished countries find the doctrine appealing because of the emphasis on miracles. He believes they seek miracles due to their economic powerlessness.[39] One region seeing explosive—and controversial—growth is Western Africa, particularly Nigeria.[38] In the Philippines, the El Shaddai movement, which is part of the Catholic Charismatic Renewal, has spread prosperity theology outside Protestant Christianity.[40] One South Korean prosperity church, Yoido Full Gospel Church, gained attention in the 1990s by claiming to be the world's largest congregation.[5]
Mainstream evangelicalism has consistently opposed prosperity theology[12] and prosperity ministries have frequently come into conflict with other Christian groups, including those within the Pentecostal and Charismatic movements.[1] Critics, such as Evangelical pastor Michael Catt[41] and Simon Coleman, have argued that prosperity theology has little in common with traditional theology. Prominent evangelical leaders, such as Rick Warren, Ben Witherington III,[7] and Jerry Falwell,[42] have harshly criticized the movement, sometimes denouncing it as heretical.[7] Warren proposes that prosperity theology promotes the idolatry of money, and others argue that Jesus' teachings indicate a disdain for material wealth.[7]
Other critics of the movement assail promises made by its leaders, arguing that the broad freedom from problems they promise is irresponsible.[1] Church leaders are often criticized for enriching themselves by requesting large donations, abusing the faith of their parishioners.[43] Prosperity theology has been opposed for not adequately explaining the lives of the Apostles; the life and writings of Paul the Apostle, who is believed to have experienced significant suffering during his ministry, are viewed as particularly contrary to prosperity theology by some theologians.[44]
In their book Health, Wealth and Happiness, theologians David Jones and Russell Woodbridge characterize the doctrine as poor theology.[45] They suggest that righteousness cannot be earned and that the Bible does not promise an easy life.[46] They argue that it is inconsistent with the gospel of Jesus, and they propose that the central message of the gospel should be Jesus' life, death, and resurrection.[46] Jones and Woodbridge see Jesus' importance as vital, criticizing the prosperity gospel for marginalizing him in favor of a focus on human need.[47] In another article, Jones criticizes the prosperity theology interpretation of the Abrahamic covenant, God's promise to bless Abraham's descendants, arguing that this blessing is spiritual and should already apply to all Christians. He also argues that the proponents of the doctrine misconstrue the atonement, criticizing their teaching that Jesus' death took away poverty as well as sin. He believes that this teaching is drawn from a misunderstanding of Jesus' life, criticizing John Avanzini's teaching that Jesus was wealthy in his life as a misrepresentation and noting that Paul often taught Christians to give up their material possessions. Although he accepts giving as "praiseworthy", he questions the motives of prosperity theology and criticizes the "Law of Compensation", which teaches that when Christians give generously, God will give back more in return. Rather, Jones cites Jesus' teaching to "give, hoping for nothing in return". Finally, he criticizes the doctrine's view of faith as a spiritual force, rather than a selfless acceptance of God.[48]
In 1980, the General Council of the Assemblies of God published a paper criticizing the doctrine of positive confession. The paper notes examples of negative confessions in the Bible which had positive results, contrasting these examples with the focus on positive confessions taught by prosperity theology. The Council argues that the Biblical Greek word often translated as "confess" literally translates as "to speak the same thing", and refers to both positive and negative confessions. The paper goes on to criticize the doctrine for failing to recognize the will of God; God's will, the paper proposes, should have precedence over the will of man, and Christians should "recognize the sovereignty of God". Prosperity theology is also criticized for overlooking the importance of prayer, arguing that prayer should be use for all requests, not positive confession. The Council noted that Christians should expect suffering in this life, as Jesus' disciples did. The Council urges the practical test of positive confession, arguing that the doctrine appeals to those who are already in affluent societies and that there are many Christians impoverished or imprisoned. Finally, the paper criticizes the distinction made by advocates of prosperity theology between the two Greek words for "speaking", arguing that the distinction made by prosperity theology is false, as they are used interchangeably in the Greek text.[F] Prosperity theology is accused of taking passages out of context, attempting to fulfill its own needs; as a result, the General Council rejected the doctrine of positive confession as being contradictory to the holistic message of the Bible.[49]
Most churches in the prosperity movement are non-denominational and independent, though some groups have formed networks of prosperity churches.[9] Prosperity churches typically reject Presbyterian polity (or governance) and the idea that a pastor should be accountable to elders; it is common for pastors of prosperity churches to be the highest organizational authority figure.[50] Critics, including Sarah Posner and Joe Conason, maintain that prosperity teachers cultivate authoritarian organizations, arguing that leaders attempt to control the lives of adherents by claiming divinely bestowed authority.[51] Jenkins sees prosperity theology as a tool used to justify the high salaries of pastors.[52]
In the United States, the movement has drawn many followers from the middle class[2] and is most popular in exurbs and urban areas.[12] In Exporting the American Gospel: Global Christian Fundamentalism Steve Brouwer, Paul Gifford, and Susan Rose speculate that the movement was fueled by a prevailing disdain for social liberalism in the United States, beginning in the 1970s[1][G] Rosin argues that prosperity theology emerged because of broader trends, particularly American economic optimism in the 1950s and 1990s. It has also been compared to manifest destiny, the belief that America was destined to expand across the American continent.[12] Marvin Harris argues that the doctrine's focus on the material world is a symptom of the secularization of American religion. He characterizes it as an attempt to fulfill the American Dream using supernatural power.[4]
Prosperity theology has become popular among poor Americans, particularly those who seek personal and social advancement.[2] It has seen significant growth in black and Hispanic churches and is particularly popular among immigrants.[12] Apologists for the movement note its ethnic diversity and argue that it encompasses a variety of views.[7] Anderson, Bergunder, and Droogers have suggested that the assumed reaction of anthropologists tends to be the theology's appeal to the poor—especially in the Global South—by making sense of capitalism and promising security. Coleman developed a theory based on the doctrine's use of rhetoric and feeling of belonging. In a study of the Swedish Word of Life Church, he noted that members felt part of a complex gift-exchange system, giving to God and then awaiting a gift in return (either from God directly or through another church member).[53] Hillsong Church, the largest church in Australia, teaches a form of prosperity theology that emphasizes personal success. Marion Maddox has argued that this message has drawn a significant number of upwardly mobile Australians.[54]
Historian Carter Lindberg of Boston University has drawn parallels between contemporary prosperity theology and earlier Christian practices, such as the medieval indulgence trade.[55] Coleman notes that several pre-20th century Christian movements in the United States taught that a holy lifestyle was a path to prosperity and that God-ordained hard work would bring blessing.[18]
Coleman has speculated that modern-day prosperity theology borrows heavily from the New Thought movement, though he admits that the connection is sometimes unclear.[56] Jenkins notes that critics draw a parallel between prosperity theology and the Cargo Cult phenomenon.[5] While citing the popularity of prosperity theology in agrarian African communities, he argues that it can bear similarities to Traditional African religious rituals.[57] J. Matthew Wilson of Southern Methodist University compares the movement to Black liberation theology because of its focus on uplifting oppressed groups. He states that it differs, however, by concentrating on individual success rather than corporate political change.[58]
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