Pipa

The pipa (Chinese: 琵琶; pinyin: pípá, [pʰǐpʰǎ]) is a four-stringed Chinese musical instrument, belonging to the plucked category of instruments. Sometimes called the Chinese lute, the instrument has a pear-shaped wooden body with a varying number of frets ranging from 12–26. Another Chinese 4 string plucked lute is the liuqin, which looks like a smaller version of the pipa.

The pipa is one of the most popular Chinese instruments and has been played for nearly two thousand years in China. Several related instruments in East and Southeast Asia are derived from the pipa; these include the Japanese biwa, the Vietnamese đàn tỳ bà, and the Korean bipa. The Korean instrument is the only one of the three that is no longer used; examples survive in museums, but attempts to revive that instrument failed.

History

Early Chinese texts suggest that instruments called pipa existed in China as early as the Qin Dynasty (221 BC–206 BC). According to Liu Xi's Eastern Han Dynasty Dictionary of Names, the word may have an onomatopoeic origin (the word being similar to the sounds the instrument makes) ^[1] although modern scholarship suggests a possible derivation from the Persian word "barbat".^[2][3] Liu Xi also stated that the instrument called "pipa", though written differently (枇杷 or 批把) in the earliest texts, originated from the Hu (meaning foreigners or barbarians).

However, the word pipa was used from these early times up until the Tang period to describe a variety of plucked chordophones, and as a result, there are still considerable confusion and disagreements about its history. One, called xiantao (弦鼗), was straight-necked with a round sound box, and was described as being played by those who constructed the Great Wall of China during the Qin Dynasty.^[4][5] Another perhaps related instrument, the Qin pipa, also had a straight neck and a round sound box along with twelve standards of notes. This was later developed into the instrument known today as the ruan which was named after Ruan Xian, one of the Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove.^[6][7] Yet another term used in ancient text was Qinhanzi (秦漢子), said to be Qin pipa, although modern opinions may differ.^[2][8]

The pear-shaped pipa is likely to have been introduced to China from Central Asia (Gandhara) and/or India.^[9] Pear-shaped lutes have been depicted in Gandharan sculptures from first century AD.^[10] The pipa from Han Dynasty was referred to as Han pipa,^[9] while pipas introduced from the Southern and Northern Dynasties to the Tang Dynasty were given various names, such as Hu pipa (胡琵琶), bent-neck pipa (曲項琵琶) and Kuchean pipa (龜茲琵琶), some of these terms however may refer to the same pipa. Apart from the four-stringed pipa, other instruments introduced include the five-stringed, straight-necked, wuxian pipa (五弦琵琶), a six-stringed version, as well as the two-stringed hulei (忽雷). From the third century onwards, through the Sui and Tang dynasty, the pear-shaped pipas became increasingly popular in China. By the Song Dynasty the word pipa was used to refer exclusively to the pear-shaped instrument.

The pipa became a favourite in the Tang Dynasty, and was a principal musical instrument in the imperial court. During this time Persian and Kuchan performers and teachers were in demand in the capital, Chang'an (which had a large Persian community).^[11] Many delicately carved pipas with beautiful inlaid patterns date from this period. It had close association with Buddhism and often appeared in mural and sculptural representations of musicians in Buddhist contexts. For example, masses of pipa-playing Buddhist semi-deities are depicted in the wall paintings of the Mogao Caves near Dunhuang. The instrument also acquired a number of Chinese symbolisms as early as Han Dynasty - the instrument length of three feet five inches represents the three realms (heaven, earth, and man) and the five elements, while the four strings represent the four seasons.^[12]

The early instrument had a crooked neck, 4 or 5 silk strings, and 4 frets (相), and was played with a plectrum in a horizontal position. As the ages went by, the crooked neck was replaced by a straight one.^[13] During the early Ming Dynasty extra bamboo frets (品) were affixed onto the soundboard, increasing the range of the instrument. The number of frets gradually increased to between 14 or 16, then to 17, 24, 29, and 30 in the 20th century. The 14- or 16-fret pipa had frets arranged in approximately equivalent to the western tone and semitone, starting at the nut, the intervals were T-S-S-S-T-S-S-S-T-T-3/4-3/4-T-T-3/4-3/4, (some frets produced a 3/4 tone or "neutral tone"). In the 1920s and 1930s, the number of frets was increased to 24, based on the 12 tone equal temperament scale, with all the intervals being semitones. The traditional 16-fret pipa is becoming less common, although it is still used in some regional styles such as the pipa in the southern genre of nanguan/nanyin. The plectrum was replaced by fingernails and the horizontal playing position was replaced by the vertical (or near-vertical) position. During this time, the five-stringed pipa became lost, although in the early 21st century it was revived by the Chinese-born, London-resident pipa performer Cheng Yu, who performs on a modernized five-string pipa modeled on the Tang dynasty instrument, which she researched and commissioned to be made.^[14]

The instrument was imported into Japan during the Tang Dynasty as well as into other regions such as Korea and Vietnam.

Pipa in Chinese literature

Early literary tradition in China, for example in a third-century description by Fu Xuan, Ode to Pipa,^[15][16] associates the Han pipa with the northern frontier, Princess Liu Xijun, and Wang Zhaojun, who were married to nomad rulers of the Wusun and Xiongnu peoples in what is now Mongolia and northern Xinjiang respectively. Wang Zhaojun in particular was frequently referenced in later literary works, as well as in music pieces such as "Zhaojun's Lament" (昭君怨), and in paintings where she was often depicted holding a pipa.

There are many references to pipa in Tang literary works, for example, in A Music Conservatory Miscellany Duan Anjie related many anecdotes associated with pipa.^[17] The pipa is mentioned frequently in Tang Dynasty poetry, where it is often praised for its refinement and delicacy of tone. A famous poem by Bai Juyi's (白居易), Pipa xing (琵琶行), describes a chance encounter with a female pipa player on the Yangtze River:^[18]

大絃嘈嘈如急雨 小絃切切如私語 嘈嘈切切錯雜彈 大珠小珠落玉盤	The bold strings rattled like splatters of sudden rain, The fine strings hummed like lovers' whispers. Chattering and pattering, pattering and chattering, As pearls, large and small, on a jade plate fall.

During the Song Dynasty, many of the literati and poets had association with the pipa and wrote Ci verses for pipa. They included Ouyang Xiu, Wang Anshi, and Su Shi.

Playing and performance

The name "pípá" is made up of two Chinese syllables, "pí" (琵) and "pá" (琶). These, according to the Han Dynasty text by Liu Xi, refer to the way the instrument is played - "Pí" is to strike with the right hand from right to left, and "pá" is to pluck in the opposite direction.^[1] The strings were played using a large plectrum in the Tang Dynasty, a technique still used now for the Japanese biwa. The plectrum was then gradually replaced by the fingernails of the right hand, although finger-playing techniques existed as early as Tang.^[19] The most basic technique, tantiao (彈挑), involves just the index finger and thumb (tan is striking with the index finger, tiao with the thumb), while lunzhi (輪指) which produces the distinctive tremolo sound of the pipa involves all the fingers and thumb of the right hand. The fingers normally strike the strings of pipa in the opposite direction to the way a guitar is usually played, i.e. the fingers flick from right to left from the player's perspective, while the thumb moves form left to right.

The strings are usually tuned to A-D-E-A, although there are various other ways of tuning. Since the revolutions in Chinese instrument-making during the 20th century, the softer twisted silk strings of earlier times have been exchanged for nylon-wound steel strings, which are far too strong for human fingernails, so false nails are now used, constructed of plastic or tortoise-shell, and affixed to the fingertips with the player's choice of elastic tape.

The pipa is held in a vertical or near-vertical position during performance, although in Tang and Sung periods the instrument was held in the horizontal position. Note that the frets on all Chinese lutes are high so that the fingers and strings never touch the fingerboard in between the frets, this is different from western fretted instruments. This allows for a greater control over timbre and intonation than their western counterparts, but makes chordal playing more difficult.

Repertoire

Pipa has been played solo, or as part of a large ensemble or small group since the early times. Few pieces for pipa survived from the early periods, some however were preserved in Japan as part of togaku (Tang music) tradition. In the early 1900s, twenty-five pieces were found amongst tenth century manuscripts in the Mogao caves near Dunhuang, most of these pieces however may have originated from the Tang Dynasty.^[20] Three Ming Dynasty pieces were discovered in the Gaohe Jiangdong (高河江東) collection dating from 1528 which are very similar to those performed today, such as "The Moon on High" (月兒高). During the Qing Dynasty, scores for pipa were collected in Thirteen Pieces for Strings (弦索十三套). There were originally two major schools of pipa during the Qing Dynasty — the Northern (Zhili, 直隸派) and Southern (Zhejiang, 浙江派) schools, and music scores for these two traditions were collected and published in the first mass-produced edition of solo pieces for pipa, now commonly known as the Hua Collection (華氏譜).^[21] The collection was edited by Hua Qiuping (華秋萍) and published in 1818 in three volumes.^[2] The first volume contains 13 pieces from the Northern school, the second and third volumes contain 54 pieces from the Southern school. Famous pieces such as "Ambushed from Ten Sides", "The Warlord Takes Off His Armour", and "Flute and Drum at Sunset" were first described in this collection. The earliest-known piece in the collection may be "Eagle Seizing Swan" (海青挐天鵝) which was mentioned in a Yuan Dynasty text.^[22] Other collections from the Qing Dynasty were compiled by Li Fangyuan (李芳園) and Ju Shilin (鞠士林), each representing different schools, and many of the pieces currently popular were described in these Qing collections. Further important collections were published in the twentieth century.

The pipa pieces in the common repertoire can be split into four distinctive styles: 「文」 wen (civil), 「武」 wu (martial), 「大」 da (suite), and 「小」 xiao (solo).

Famous solo pieces now performed include:

Most of these are traditional compositions dating to the Qing Dynasty or early twentieth century, however new pieces are constantly being composed, and most of these follow a more Western structure. Examples of modern composition are "Dance of the Yi People" and "Heroic Little Sisters of the Grassland" (草原英雄小姐妹). Non-traditional themes may be used in these new compositions and some may reflect the political landscape and demands at the time of composition, for example "Dance of the Yi People" which is based on traditional melodies of the Yi people, may be seen as part of the drive for national unity (民族團結), while "Heroic Little Sisters of the Grassland" extols the virtue of those who served as model of exemplary conduct in the People's commune.^[23]

Schools

Different traditions with different styles of playing pipa are found in different regions of China which then developed into schools. In the narrative traditions where the pipa is used as an accompaniment to narrative singing, there are the Suzhou (蘇州彈詞), Sichuan (四川清音), and Northern (北方曲藝) schools. A number of other schools are associated with regional chamber ensemble traditions such as the Jiangnan (江南絲竹), Chaozhou (潮州弦詩) and Nanguan (南管) music. Nanguan pipa is unusual in that it is held in the horizontal position in the ancient manner instead of the vertical position normally used for solo playing in the present day.

There are five main schools associated with the solo tradition, each are associated with one or more collections of pipa music and named after its place of origin -

• Wuxi (無錫派) - associated with the Hua Collection by Hua Qiuping, who studied with Wang Junxi (王君錫) of the Northern school and Chen Mufu (陳牧夫) of the Southern school, and may be considered a synthesis of these two schools of Qing Dynasty. As the first published collection, the Hua Collection had considerable influence on later pipa players.
• Pudong (浦東派) - associated with the Ju Collection (鞠氏譜) which is based on a handwritten manuscript, Xianxu Youyin (閑敘幽音), by Ju Shilin from the eighteenth century.
• Pinghu (平湖派) - associated with the Li Collection (李氏譜) compiled by Li Fangyuan who came from a family of many generations of pipa players.^[24]
• Chongming (崇明派) - associated with Old Melodies of Yingzhou (瀛洲古調) compiled by Shen Zhaozhou (沈肇州) in 1916.
• Shanghai (汪派) - the Shanghai or Wang school (named after Wang Yuting (汪昱庭) who created this style of playing) may be considered a synthesis of the other four schools especially the Pudong and Pinghu schools.

These schools of the solo tradition emerged by students learning playing the pipa from a master, and each school has it own style, performance aesthetics, notation system, and may differ in their playing techniques.^[25][26] Different schools may have different repertoire in their music collection, and even though these schools share many of the same pieces in their repertoire, a same piece of music from the different schools may differ in their content. For example, a piece like "The Warlord Takes off His Armour" is made up of many sections, some of them metered and some with free meter, but different schools may have sections added or removed, and may differ in the number of sections with free meter.^[25] The music collections from the nineteenth century also used the gongche notation which provides only a skeletal melody and approximate rhythms with minimal playing instructions, and how this basic framework can become fully fleshed out during performance may only be learnt by the students from the master. The same piece of music may therefore differ significantly when performed by students of different schools, with striking differences in interpretation, phrasing, tempo, dynamics, playing techniques, and ornamentations.

In more recent times, many pipa players, especially the younger ones, no longer identify themselves with any specific school. Modern notation systems and new compositions are now widely available and it is no longer crucial for a pipa players to learn from the master of any particular school to know how to play a score.

Performers

Historical

The introduction of pipa from Central Asia also brought with it virtuoso performers from that region, for example Sujiva (蘇祇婆) from the Kingdom of Kucha during the Northern Zhou Dynasty, Kang Kunlun (康崑崙) from Kangju, and Pei Luoer (裴洛兒) from Shule. Pei Luoer was known for pioneering finger-playing techniques,^[19] while Sujiva was noted for his "Seven modes and seven tones", a musical modal theory from India.^[27][28] (The heptatonic scale was used for a time afterwards due to Sujiva's influence until it was abandoned as it conflicted with the traditional pentatonic scale.) These players had considerable influence on the development of pipa playing in China. Of particular fame were the family of pipa players founded by Cao Poluomen (曹婆羅門) and who were active for many generations from Northern Wei to Tang Dynasty.^[29]

Texts from the Tang Dynasty mentioned many renowned Tang Dynasty pipa players such as He Huaizhi (賀懷智), Lei Haiqing (雷海清), Li Guaner (李管兒), and Pei Xingnu (裴興奴).^[30][31][32] Duan Anjie described the duel between the famous pipa player Kang Kunlun and the monk Duan Shanben (段善本) who was disguised as a girl, and told the story of Yang Zhishan (楊志善) who learned how to play the pipa secretly by listening to his aunt at night.^[17] Celebrated performers of the Tang Dynasty included three generations of the Cao family — Cao Bao (曹保), Cao Shancai (曹善才) and Cao Gang (曹剛),^[33][34] whose performances were noted in literary works.^[35][36]

During Song Dynasty, players mentioned in literary texts include Du Bin (杜彬).^[37] From the Ming Dynasty, famous pipa players include Zhong Xiuzhi (鍾秀之), Zhang Xiong (張雄, known for his playing of "Eagle Seizing Swan"), the blind Li Jinlou (李近樓), and Tang Yingzeng (湯應曾) who was known to have played a piece that may be an early version of "Ambushed from Ten Sides".^[38]

In Qing Dynasty, apart from those of the various schools previously mentioned, there was Chen Zijing (陳子敬), a student of Ju Shilin and known as a great player during late Qing Dynasty.

Modern era

In the 20th century, two of the most prominent pipa players were Sun Yude (孙裕德; 1904–1981) and Li Tingsong (李庭松; 1906–1976). Both were pupils of Wang Yuting (1872–1951), and both were active in establishing and promoting guoyue ("national music"), a combination of traditional regional musics and Western musical practices. Sun performed in the United States, Asia, and Europe, and in 1956 became deputy director of the Shanghai minzu yuetuan (Shanghai Folk Orchestra). As well as being one of the leading pipa players of his generation, Li held many academic positions and also carried out research on pipa scales and temperament. Wei Zhongle (卫仲乐; 1908 or 1909–1998) played many instruments, including the guqin. In the early 1950s, he founded the traditional instruments department at the Shanghai Conservatory of Music. Players from the Wang and Pudong schools were the most active in performance and recording during the 20th century, less active was the Pinghu school whose players include Fan Boyan (樊伯炎).

Lin Shicheng (林石城; 1922–2006), born in Shanghai, began learning music under his father and was taught by Shen Haochu (沈浩初; 1899–1953), a leading player in the Pudong school style of pipa playing. He also qualified as a doctor of Chinese medicine. In 1956, after working for some years in Shanghai, Lin accepted a position at the Central Conservatory of Music in Beijing. Liu Dehai (刘德海; b. 1937) also born in Shanghai, was a student of Lin Shicheng and in 1961 graduated from the Central Conservatory of Music in Beijing. Liu also studied with other musicians and has developed a style that combines elements from several different schools.

Prominent students of Lin Shicheng include Liu Guilian (刘桂莲, b. 1961), Wu Man (吴蛮, b. 1963) and Gao Hong (高虹, b. 1964). Wu, who is probably the best known pipa player internationally, received the first-ever master's degree in pipa and won China's first National Academic Competition for Chinese Instruments. She lives in San Diego, California and works extensively with Chinese, cross-cultural, new music, and jazz groups. Shanghai-born Liu Guilian graduated from the Central Conservatory of Music and became the director of the Shanghai Pipa Society, and a member of the Chinese Musicians Association and Chinese National Orchestral Society, before immigrating to Canada. She now performs with Red Chamber and the Vancouver Chinese Music Ensemble. Gao Hong graduated from the Central Conservatory of Music and was the first to do a joint tour with Lin Shicheng in North America. They recorded the critically acclaimed CD "Eagle Seizing Swan" together.

Other contemporary pipa players working in North America, Europe, or Japan include Min Xiao-Fen, Zhou Yi (周懿), Yang Wei (楊惟), Guan Yadong (管亚东), Tang Liangxing (湯良興), Jiang Ting, Qiu Xia He, Liu Fang (劉芳), Yang Jing (楊靜), Pipa Qing (沈庆惠), Ting Ting (Zong Tingting), Cheng Yu, Jie Ma (马捷), and Changlu Wu (吳长璐).

Prominent pipa players in China include Yu Jia (俞嘉), Wu Yu Xia (吳玉霞), Zhang Qiang (張強), Fang JinLung (方錦龍), and Fan Wei (樊薇).

Use in contemporary classical music

In the late 20th century, largely through the efforts of Wu Man, Min Xiao-Fen, and other performers, Chinese and Western contemporary composers began to create new works for the pipa (both solo and in combination with chamber ensembles and orchestra). Most prominent among these are Terry Riley, Philip Glass, Lou Harrison, Tan Dun, Bright Sheng, Chen Yi, Zhou Long, Bun-Ching Lam, and Carl Stone.^[39]

Use in other genres

The pipa has also been used in rock music; the California-based band Incubus featured one, borrowed from legendary guitarist Steve Vai, in their 2001 song "Aqueous Transmission," as played by the group's guitarist, Mike Einziger.^[40] The Shanghai progressive/folk-rock band Cold Fairyland, which was formed in 2001, also use pipa (played by Lin Di), sometimes multi-tracking it in their recordings. Australian dark rock band The Eternal use the pipa in their song 'Blood' as played by singer / guitarist Mark Kelson on their album 'Kartika'.

Electric pipa

The electric pipa was developed in the late 20th century by adding electric guitar-style magnetic pickups to a regular acoustic pipa, allowing the instrument to be amplified through an instrument amplifier or PA system.

See also

• Traditional Chinese musical instruments
• Biwa
• Lute
• Jiangnan sizhu

References

Further reading

• New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second edition, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell (London, 2001).
• John Myers (1992). The way of the pipa: structure and imagery in Chinese lute music. Kent State University Press. ISBN 0-87338-455-5. 

External links

• An article on the historical development of pipa
• The Pipa on the Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History, The Metropolitan Museum of Art
• Youtube music videos: Pipa music performed by renowned pipa masters from China, Hong Kong and Taiwan