Paracel Islands

Paracel Islands
Disputed islands
Paracel Islands
Geography
Location South China Sea
Total islands >30
Major islands Rocky Island, Tree Island, Woody Island
Area 15,000 km² (ocean surface)
Coastline 518 kilometres (322 mi)
Highest point on Rocky Island
14 metres (46 ft)
Administered by
 People's Republic of China
County Administration Office for Xisha Islands, Zhongsha Islands and Nansha Islands
Claimed by
 People's Republic of China
Province Hainan
 Republic of China (Taiwan)
Municipality Kaohsiung
 Vietnam
Province Da Nang
Paracel Islands
Chinese name
Traditional Chinese 西沙群島
Simplified Chinese 西沙群岛
Vietnamese name
Quốc ngữ Quần đảo Hoàng Sa
Hán tự 群島黃沙

The Paracel Islands, also called Xisha Islands (西沙群岛) in Chinese and Hoàng Sa Islands in Vietnamese, is a group of islands under the administration of Hainan Province, The People's Republic of China. Vietnam and the Republic of China (Taiwan) also claim sovereignty of these islands. The People's Republic of China and South Vietnam each controlled part of the Paracel Islands before 1974. A brief conflict in 1974 resulted in 71 soldiers being killed, and China has controlled the whole of Paracel since then, though this control is still disputed by Vietnam.

The Paracel Islands consist of over 30 islets, sandbanks or reefs, occupy about 15,000 km² of the ocean surface, and are located in the South China Sea. Turtles live on the islands, and seabirds have left nests and guano deposits, but there are no permanent human residents except for a small number of troops. The archipelago is approximately equidistant from the coastlines of Vietnam and China, 180 nautical miles SE of Hainan Island, and about one-third of the way from central Vietnam to the northern Philippines.

The islands are divided into two main groups. The Amphitrite group is in the northeast and the Crescent group is in the southwest, and they are located about 70 km (43 mi) from one another. Subject to hot and humid climate, with abundant rainfall and frequent typhoons, the archipelago is surrounded by productive fishing grounds and potential oil and gas reserves.

Contents

Geography

Geographic data

Amphitrite Group

The Amphitrite group was named after the French frigate Amphitrite of the Jesuit missionary.[1][2][3] Lying in the most northeastern of the Paracel Islands, at the coordinates of 16.97 degrees North and 112.28 degrees East, the group consists of six low narrow islands with sand cays; enclose shallow lagoons, connected by reefs of rock, and about 37 km (23 mi) northwest from Lincoln Island. The northern section of the group comprises South Island, Middle Island, North Island, and Tree Island. The last unit lies toward the eastern tip of this section with coconut palm trees seen on the island. Together they form the upper branch of an ellipse of 22 km (14 mi) long semimajor axis that approximately orientates from west to east. The southern section consists of two islands called Woody and Rocky Islands lying very near each other. The former located approximately 5 km (3 mi) southwards from the southern tip of the east extremity of the northern section. This feature is the largest island of the Amphitrite group.

Crescent Group

Duncan Islands
Drummond Island
Money Island
Antelope Reef
Robert Island
Pattle Island
Observation Bank
Crescent Group, looking westward

Lying about 70 km (43 mi) southwest of Amphitrite group, at the latitude of 16.52 degrees North and the longitude of 111.63 degrees East, this group consists of 8 islands and forms a crescent-like structure hanging from west to east and enclosing a deep central lagoon. The group measures 31 km (19 mi) and 15 km (9 mi) in length and width, from east to west and from north to south, respectively. All of the islands of the group are vegetated except for small cays. Located in the southwestern extremity of the group, at the hanging point of the crescent structure, is Money Island. This feature has some small cays in the southern side. The Antelope Reef, submerged at high tide and containing a central lagoon, lies 2.4 km (1.5 mi) east of the island of Money. Respectively, northeast of this reef are Robert and Pattle Islands. They are separated from each other by a 3.5 km (2.2 mi) wide, deep channel. The latter is the largest island of the group; a lighthouse and a radio and weather station were built there on 1937. The Observation Bank situates at the northernmost of the Crescent group and contains a small cay; from the southeastern side lying a 12 km (7 mi) long, boomerang shaped reef with the island of Drummond. The last distinct unit of the atoll-like structure is the Duncan Islands group, which is approximately 3 km (2 mi) west of the Drummond Island and about 8 km (5 mi) east of the island of Antelope.

Other features

List of all Islands with Chinese and Vietnamese names

List of Paracel Islands (See map below for locations)
English name Chinese name Vietnamese name coordinates Area(km2) Location/Note
Amphitrite Group Xuande Islands (宣德群岛) Nhóm An Vĩnh - NE of the Islands
Woody Island Yongxing Dao (永兴岛) Đảo Phú Lâm 2.1 Has airport, Center East
Rocky Island Shidao (石岛) Đảo Hòn Đá 0.08 connected to (NE of) Woody, 14m elev.
West Sand Xisha Zhou (西沙洲) Cồn Cát Tây 0.04 NW of Amphitrite Group
Tree Island Zhaoshudao (赵述岛) Đảo Cây 0.22 North of Amphitrite Group
(seven sisters) Qilian Yu Subgroup(七连屿) - - - NE of Amphitrite Group
North Island Bei Dao (北岛) Đảo Bắc 0.04 N of Seven Islets(1)
Middle Island Zhong Dao (中岛) Đảo Trung/Giữa 0.13 N2 of Seven Islets(2)
South Island Nan Dao (南岛) Đảo Nam 0.17 N3 of Seven Islets(4)
(North Sand) Bei Sha Zhou (北沙洲) Cồn Cát Bắc 0.02 N4 of Seven Islets(4)
Middle Sand Zhong Sha Zhou (中沙洲) Đá Trung 0.05 N5 of Seven Islets(5)
South Sand Nan Sha Zhou (南沙洲) Cồn Cát Nam 0.06 N6 of Seven Islets(6)
(New West Sand) Xixinsha Zhou (西新沙洲) Chuỗi Tiên Sa 0.002 N7a of Seven Islets(7W)
(south of South Sand) Dong Xin Sha Zhou (东新沙洲) Chuỗi Cát Bằng 0.004 N7b of Seven Islets(7E)
Itis Bank Yin Shuo Tan (银铄滩) Bãi Liên Đông - SW of Amphitrite Group
Crescent Group Yongle Islands（永樂群島） Nhóm Trăng Khuyết; Lưỡi Liềm - -
Money Island Jinyin Dao (金银岛) Đảo Quang Ảnh 0.36 West end of Crescent Group
Robert Island Ganquan Dao (甘泉岛) Đảo Hữu Nhật 0.30 W side of Crescent Group
Pattle Island Shanhu Dao (珊瑚岛) Đảo Hoàng Sa 0.31 N of Robert Island
Antelope Reef Lingyang Jiao (羚羊礁) Bãi ngầm Sơn Dương - W side of Crescent Group, S of Robert Is.
(Little Basket Sandbank) Kuangzai Shazhou (筐仔沙洲) Bãi Đá Nổi 0.01 S of Crescent Group
Duncan Island Shenhang Dao (琛航岛) Đảo Quang Hòa Đông
Đảo Quang Hòa Tây		 0.28 S side of Crescent Group
(Guangjin Island) Guangjin Dao (广金岛) Đảo Hoàng Châu 0.06 S side of Crescent Group
Drummond Island Jinqing Dao (晋卿岛) Đảo Duy Mộng 0.21 SE of Crescent Group
(Stone Islet) Shi Yu (石屿) Hòn Đá Nổi 0.002 NE of Crescent Group
(Minor Silver Islet) Yinyu Zai (银屿仔) Hòn Vọng Tuyết 0.002 SE of Yin Yu
(Silver Islet) Yin Yu (银屿) Hòn Đá Bạc 0.01 NE of Crescent Group
(He Duck Island) Yagong Dao (鸭公岛) Đảo Khe Sang 0.01 SW of Yin Yu
(All Wealth Island) Quanfu Dao (全富岛) Đảo Phú Hảo 0.02 NE of Pattle,SW of Yin Yu
(Salty Hut Islet) Xianshe Yu (咸舍屿) Hòn Đá Mặn - W of Shiyu
Other features - - - - -
Triton Island Zhongjiandao (中建岛） Đảo Tri Tôn 1.20 SW of the Islands
Discovery Reef Huaguang Jiao (华光礁） Đá Lồi - S of Xuande Islands (宣德群岛)
Passu Keah Panshi Yu (盘石屿） Đảo Bạch Quy (Rùa Trắng) 0.40 S of Discovery Reef
(Songtao Beach) Songtao Tan (嵩焘滩） Đảo Ngân Quý - Central South of the Islands
Bombay Reef Langhuajiao (浪花礁） Đá Bông Bay - SE of the Islands
Vuladdore Reef Yuduo Jiao (玉琢礁） Đảo Chim Yến - SE of Xuande Islands, Center of the Islands
Bremen Bank Binmei Tan (滨湄滩） Bãi ngầm Bremen - Eastern Group
Jehangire Bank Zhanhan Tan (湛涵滩） Bãi ngầm Jehangire - Eastern Group
Neptune Bank Beibian Lang (北边廊） Bãi Thổ Tinh - Eastern Group
Pyramid Rock Gaojian Shi (高尖石） Hòn Tháp 0.04 Eastern Group
Lincoln Island Dong Dao (东岛) Đảo Linh Côn 1.60 Eastern Group
Dido Bank Xidu Tan (西渡滩) Rặng Thuỷ Tứ - SE of the Islands
North Reef Beijiao (北礁) Cồn Bắc - NW of the Islands

Note that the English names are direct translation for the Chinese name (or vice versa), for most of the Islands, with the exception of a few islands named after English person names such as Woody/Yongxing, Tree/Zhaoshu, Itis/Yinshuo, Robert/Jinquan, Pattle/Shandu, Duncan/Shenhang, Drummond/Jinqing. e.g. Dao-Island, Bei=North, Money == Gold Silver = Jinyin

Satellite images

Origin of the names of the islands

Xisha

The Chinese name Xisha (西沙), literally means Western Beach, refers to its location in the west of the South China Sea. The Chinese called the different groups of islands in the South China Sea Western Beach (Xisha, Paracel), Southern Beach (Nansha, Spratly), Eastern Beach (Dongsha, Pratas) and Central Beach respectively. In a Chinese book published in Ming Dynasty Voyage with the Tail Wind (zh:順風相送),[4] the islands were called Wanglishitang (万里石塘) or "Ten Thousands Miles of Stone Pond" (“舟过此〔七洲洋〕极险，稍贪东便是万里石塘”). The same name is also presented in the Map of Zheng He's Voyage (郑和航海图).

Hoàng Sa

The Vietnamese call the islands Hoang Sa, (黃沙 or Yellow Sands), has been found in historic Vietnamese documents dating back to the 15th century.[5] In the modern language system it is written as Hoàng Sa or Cát Vàng. They all have the same meaning that is the Yellow Sands or the Yellow Sandbank. Before the early 19th century, the present-day Spratly Islands were treated as the features of Hoàng Sa.[6][7] Only under the reign of Emperor Minh Mạng (1820–1841) when the Spratlys were distinctly delineated and officially named Vạn Lý Trường Sa, the Ten-thousand-league Long Sandbank.[8][9]

Pracel and Paracel

On the "Map of Europe, Africa and Asia" published in 1598 by Cornelis Claez, an unnamed band of rocks and sandbanks shown in the neighborhood of the present-day location of the Paracel and Spratly Islands. About two decades later, the names Pracel and Costa de Pracel (Coast of Pracel) appeared on the "Chart of Asia and eight city maps" published in 1617 by Williem Jansz Blaeu, a Dutch map maker. The coast belonged to the Kingdom of Cauchi China.[10]

As early as at the beginning of the 16th century, had the Portuguese vessels frequented the South China Sea; then later came the Dutch, the English, the Spanish, and the French. They all wanted to become a major trader in the region of great opportunities commercially, but was still less known to the west. The name Paracel started replacing Pracel on maps and charts as the century passed. Typically, on the "Map of the coast of Tonquin and Cochinchina", made in 1747 by Pierre d'Hondt, the dangerous band of rugged rocks was labeled "Le Paracel", a French phonetic notation. Because of its peculiarity on an important water channel, Ilhas de Pracel (Pracel Islands) had drawn much attention from navigators and hydrographers for several centuries. In addition, recent disputes have once again inflamed the popularity of the islands; but the origination of the terminology is still vaguely understood. There are different stories about the names but none of them are able to provide any convincing evidence.

The report "Paracel and Spratly Islands on Charts and Maps made by Westerners" by Dr. Dai-Viet Nguyen (Nguyễn Đại Việt) of Vietnamese Nationalist Party (Việt Nam Quốc Dân Đảng) has shed light on the origin of the terminology.[10] Part of his findings included various citations, typically:

The coast of Brazil from Santa Catharina island to Maranluio presents a peculiarity which is worthy of remark; for it appears as though it were encircled by two bands of elevated ground (dentures de haut fonds), which, except in a few intervals, are continued throughout all its extent, and seem as if intended to defend the land from the encroachment and impetuosity of the waves, which continually lash the shores. One of these defences adjacent to the land is a ridge rocks, which forms a kind of border, extending principally from cape Frio to Maranhao. The other natural bulwark or defence of the coast is a bank, situated from 2 to 10 leagues from the land, generally of a moderate though irregular depth, which the natives term Pracel or Paracel, as all the depths are unequal and irregular where the inhabitants fish. It may be said that this Pracel the same as the recife...[11]

or,

Off Mount Melançia (Ion. 39 degrees 18') before noticed a bank commences which thence extends all the way to the River Iguarassu, an extent of 45 leagues. This bank which is called in the country Pracel de Caracu from the name of the most considerable hamlet on this part of the coast, extends outward about 3 leagues from the shore, and is circumscribed by the depth of 6 fathoms...[12]

Ecologically, it is understood that the terminology was used to classify a certain islands, rather than being used as a proper noun. Notably, that class of islands seems to possess a number of special characteristics, which may be defined as follows:

Pracel is a moderately elevated chain of islets, sandbanks, and reefs. These features are continuously distributed and stretched over a noticeable distance of tens or hundreds of kilometers in length. Pracel may not be a suitable place for human residents, but its irregular depth creates an ideal environment inhabited by fish. Pracel often forms a natural bulwark as an outer line of defense for a coast or a land.[10]

Regarding the features off the coast of the Kingdom of Cauchi China, their structure closely fits the above description. By piecing all the elements together, undoubtedly, it is the Portuguese people who purposely classified them as a pracel in their native language in the early 16th century. Pracel is an antiquated variation of the now much more common form parcel, which was used by the Portuguese navigators to designate shallow seas or sea banks, and is still widely found in the toponimy of Portuguese-speaking countries. Approximately three hundred and fifty years later, in the early-mid-19th century, Ilhas de Pracel was divided into two archipelagos. From that time onwards, the names Paracel Islands and Spratly Islands have become more popular internationally and widely used on charts, maps, and related documents.

Infrastructure and information of the Islands

Fresh water

There is limited supply of fresh water on the islands. China has planned to build a solar energy powered desalination plant on the islands.

Electricity

There are both wind power and solar power facilities to supply electricity on the islands.

Communication

There is a post office, hospital, bank and hostel on Woody Island. The People Republic of China's postal zip code of the island is 572000, and the telephone area code is +86 (0898).

Transport

There is an airport on Woody Island. The runway is of 2400m long, and can handle landing and take-off of Boeing-737 or planes of similar size. Flight services operate on Haikou - Xisha route. There are three main roads on Woody Island. There is also a 800m long cement bank connecting Woody Island and Rocky Island.

Tourism

The island has been open for tourists since 1997 as announced by the government of People's Republic of China. There are two museums, a Naval Museum and a Maritime Museum, on Woody Island.

The territorial dispute and its historical background

The sovereignty of the archipelago has been the subject of disputes among People's Republic of China, Republic of China (Taiwan), and Vietnam since the 20th century. Around the mid-19th century, after conquering Vietnam, France subsequently took over and administered the islands on behalf of her colony. In 1883 German boats surveyed the islands but withdrew the survey eventually after receiving protests from the Qing Dynasty of China. France annexed the islands as part of French Indochina despite protests from China in the 1930s, but was taken over by Japanese troops during the Second Sino-Japanese War. Japan renounced the claims to the islands after the war and the Republic of China retook the Paracel islands in late 1946. A small Chinese platoon was stationed on Woody Island.

After the success of communists in the Chinese Civil War in 1949, the People's Republic of China took control of Woody Island, the main island of the Amphitrite group and the only island that was occupied at the time. Pattle Island, the largest of the Crescent group, on the other hand, was later taken by the French Indochina and then controlled by South Vietnam following independence in 1956. Tensions over the islands continued to rise unceasingly since then.

Military engagement

Main article: Battle of the Paracel Islands

In 1974, the political and diplomatic dispute on the islands became an armed conflict between the People's Republic of China and South Vietnam. On 16 January, South Vietnamese army officers and an American observer reported to Saigon some suspected military activities of the People's Liberation Army Navy at the Drummond and Duncan islands. After receiving the report, the government of South Vietnam (Republic of Vietnam) decided to counter the PRC forces,[13] and sent a unit of frigates to the area. On 19 January, there were sea and land battles between the Chinese and Vietnamese forces with casualties on both sides. At the end, the PLAN fleet defeated the naval force of South Vietnam. With the ongoing civil war embroiling South Vietnam's attention and the absence of the USA's backing, no military attempt was made to re-engage the PRC over the islands. After the military engagement and the subsequent victory, the PRC gained the entire archipelago and has taken control of Paracel Islands ever since. It was a significant turning point for the PRC but the sovereignty dispute on the islands remains unresolved with Vietnam.

Historical perspectives

China

618–1279

There are some Chinese cultural relics in the Paracel islands dating from the Tang and Song dynasty eras,[14][note 1] and there is some evidence of Chinese habitation on the islands in these periods.[15] According to the Wujing Zongyao, a book published in the Northern Song dynasty in 1044, the Song government then included the Islands in the patrol areas of the Navy of the Court.[16]

1279–1368

In 1279, the Yuan Dynasty emperor sent the famous high-level official and astronomer, Guo Shoujing, to the South China Sea to survey and measure the islands and the surrounding sea area. Guo's base of survey was located in the Paracel Islands. His activities were well recorded in Yuan Shi, or History of Yuan. According to Yuan Shi, the South China Sea islands were within the boundary of the Yuan Dynasty. Maps published in the Yuan era invariably included the Changsha (the Paracels) and the Shitang (the Spratlys) within the domain of Yuan.

1368–1912

Relevant local annals and other historic materials of the Ming (1368~1644) and the Qing (1644~1912) dynasties continued to . The Qiongzhou Prefecture (the highest administrative authority in Hainan) exercised jurisdiction over the Paracel and Spratly Islands in the Ming and Qing Dynasties. In 1883, the Qing government lodged strong protests against Germany when the Germans were conducting survey activities in the Paracel and Spratly areas; as a result of such protests, the Germans had to terminate their survey activities. The Sino-French treaty of 1887 between Qing China and France, who had occupied Indochina by that time, expressly provided that the islands east of a delimitation line, known as the Sino-Tonkin delimitation line, should belong to China, whereas the Paracel and Spratly Islands are located east of the delimitation line. In 1910, the Qing government decided to invite Chinese merchants to contract for the administration of the development affairs of the South China Sea islands, and demanded that officials shall provide protection and maintenance in order to highlight Chinese territory and protect its titles and interests.[17]

1912–1950s

After the fall of the Qing Dynasty, the new Government of Guangdong Province decided to place the Paracel Islands under the jurisdiction of the Ya Xian County of Hainan Prefecture in 1911. The Southern Military Government in 1921 reaffirmed the 1911 decision. The Republic of China continued to exercise authority over the South China Sea islands by such means as granting licenses or contracts to private Chinese merchants for the development and exploitation of guano and other resources on those islands and protesting against foreign nations' claims, occupations, and other activities.

On July 27, 1932, the Chinese Foreign Ministry instructed the Chinese Envoy to France to lodge a diplomatic protest to the French Foreign Ministry and to deny France's claims to the Paracel Islands. On November 30 of the same year, Zhu Zhaoshen, a high-level inspection official of the Chinese Foreign Ministry, issued public correspondence Number 66 to the French Consul in Guangzhou, reiterating that "it is absolutely beyond doubt that the Xisha [Paracel] Islands fall within the boundary of China". Despite repeated Chinese protests, French troops, who had colonized Indochina in the 19th century, invaded and occupied the Paracel Islands on July 3, 1938. This took place shortly after the breakout of the Second Sino-Japanese War, when China was fully engaged in resisting Japan's invasion. Three days later, on July 6, the Japanese Foreign Ministry also issued a declaration in protest of the French occupation:

The statement of Great Britain and France made respectively in 1900 and 1921 already declared that the Xisha [Paracel] Islands were part of the Administrative Prefecture of Hainan Island. Therefore, the current claims made by An'nan or France to the Xisha Islands are totally unjustifiable.

During the Second World War, Japanese expelled the French troops and took over the islands in spite of the 1938 declaration. At the end of the war (Asian-Pacific Region), the Government of the Republic of China formally retook the Paracels, Spratlys and other islands in the South China Sea in October and November 1946. In Geneva accord of 1954 Japan formally renounced all of its claims to, inter alia, the South China Sea islands which it had occupied during the World War II.[18]

Vietnam

15th–17th centuries

1700–1799

1800–1899

20th century Events

Paracel in media

The movie Storm in the South Sea (南海风云) [37][38] was produced in the People's Republic of China in 1976, showing the Battle of the Paracel Islands in 1974. The movie and its theme songs were hits in China.

See also

References

  1. ^ J. B. Nicolas-Denis d'Apres de Mannevillett, Instruction sur la navigation des Indes-Orientales et de la Chine, pour servir au Neptune oriental, Chez Demonville, Paris, 1775. Retrieved on 06-04-2009.
  2. ^ Young men's Catholic Association, Catholic progress, Vol. 7, Burns and Oates, London, 1878. Retrieved on 06-04-2009.
  3. ^ Michael Sullivan, The meeting of Eastern and Western art, Revised and expanded edition. Retrieved on 06-04-2009.
  4. ^ Title: Liang zhong hai dao zhen jing / [Xiang Da jiao zhu].Imprint: Beijing : Zhonghua shu ju : Xin hua shu dian Beijing fa xing suo fa xing, 2000 reprint edition. Contents: Shun feng xiang song--Zhi nan zheng fa. (順風相送--指南正法). ISBN ISBN 7-101-02025-9. pp96 and pp253. The full text is available on wikisource.
  5. ^ a b c d e f Tập San Sử Địa, Đặc Khảo Hoàng Sa và Trường Sa - A Special Research on Paracel and Spratly Islands, Geographical Digest, Vol 29., Saigon, 1974. Reproduced version. Retrieved on 4-13-2009
  6. ^ Saxe Bannister, A Journal of the First French Embassy to China, 1698-1700, Thomas Cautley Newby Publisher, 1859. Retrieved on 4-25-2009.
  7. ^ Conrad Malte-Brun, Universal geography, Vol. 2, John Laval and S.F. Bradford, Philadelphia, 1829. Retrieved on 4-25-2009.
  8. ^ a b c Phan Huy Chú, The Encyclopedia Lịch Triều Hiến Chương Loại Chí, 1821. Translated into modern Vietnamese from Chinese by Nguyen Tho Duc, Saigon, 1972
  9. ^ a b Jean Louis, Dictionarium Anamitico-Latinum et Latino-Anamiticum, 1838
  10. ^ a b c Nguyễn Đại Việt, Paracel and Spratly Islands on Charts and Maps made by Westerners, 2009.
  11. ^ Albin René Roussin and Ernest Mouchez, Sailing directions for the coast of Brazil, included between Maranhao and Rio Janeiro, James Imray and Son, London, 1875.
  12. ^ John Purdy, The new sailing directory for the Ethiopic or southern Atlantic ocean, R. H. Laurie, London, 1855.
  13. ^ Thomas J. Cutler, The Battle for the Paracel Islands, Naval Institute Press, Annapolis, MD. Retrieved on 4-24-2009.
  14. ^ Museum of Guangdong Province (1974.10). "Briefing Investigation Report of Guangdong Province Xisha Islands' Culture Relics". Culture Relics: 1–29, 95–102. http://epub.cnki.net/grid2008/detail.aspx?filename=WENW197410000&dbname=CJFQ1979. Retrieved 2008-11-28. 
  15. ^ Han, Zhenhua; LI Jinming (1990.04). "Niangniang Temple and Corallite Little Temple in Paracel and Spratly Islands". Southeast Asian Affairs: 86. http://epub.cnki.net/grid2008/detail.aspx?filename=LYWT199004009&dbname=CJFQ1990. Retrieved 2008-11-28. 
  16. ^ /zixun_73156.html "我国对西沙南沙群岛主权的历史和法理依据". http://zx.china-b.com/nfldx /zixun_73156.html. 
  17. ^ Myron H. Nordquist, John Norton Moore, University of Virginia, "Security flashpoints: oil, islands, sea access and military confrontation", p165-174
  18. ^ Myron H. Nordquist, John Norton Moore, University of Virginia, "Security flashpoints: oil, islands, sea access and military confrontation", p174-185
  19. ^ W.J.M. Buch, La Compagnie des Indes Néerlandaises et l'Indochine, pp.134-135, 1936, Persee. Retrieved on 04-05-2009.
  20. ^ Đỗ Bá Công Đạo, Toàn Tập Thiên Nam Tứ Chí Lộ Đồ Thư, Translated into modern Vietnamese from Chinese by Buu Cam, Hồng Đức Bản Đồ, Saigon, 1962.
  21. ^ a b Lê Quý Đôn, The Encyclopedia of Thuận Hóa and Quảng Nam Phủ Biên Tập Lục, 1776. Translated into modern Vietnamese from Chinese by Le Xuan Giao, Saigon, 1972.
  22. ^ a b c d e f g h i Monique Chemillier-Gendreau, Sovereignty Over the Paracel and Spratly Islands, p36, p37, p68, p69, p71, p72, p74, Kluwer Law International, ISBN9041113819. Retrieved on 4-08-2009
  23. ^ Jean-Baptiste Grosier, De la Chine ou Description Générale De Cet Empire, p. 16, 3rd Edition, Chez Pillet, Imprimeur Libraire, Paris, 1818. Retrieved on 4-08-2009
  24. ^ Richard Simpson Gundry, China and Her Neighbours, p.3, Chapman and Hall Ltd., 1893, London. Retrieved on 4-07-2009
  25. ^ J. J. Higginbotham, Selections from the Asiatic Journal and Monthly Register for British India and its Dependencies: "A Cuccinct Historical Narrative of the East India Company's Endeavours", Vol. 13, p.447, 1822, Higginbotham & Co. Retrieved on 4-08-2009
  26. ^ a b David Hancox et al., A Geographical Description of the Spratly Islands and an Account of Hydrographic Surveys Amongst Those Islands, Marine Time Briefing, Vol. 1-6, pp. 31-32, International Research Unit. Retrieved on 4-11-2009.
  27. ^ L. S. Dawson, Memoirs of Hydrography, Part I, p.43, 1750-1850, The Imperial Library, Eastbourne. Retrieved on 4-08-2009
  28. ^ a b c d The Encyclopedia of Nguyễn Dynasty History "Đại Nam Thực Lục Chính Biên", 1848 (Part I), 1864 (Part II), 1879 (Part III).
  29. ^ J. B. Chaigneau, Le Mémoire sur la Cochinchine, 1820.
  30. ^ Tìm thấy sắc chỉ cổ về Hoàng Sa, BBC, Retrieved on 04-02-2009.
  31. ^ Khâm Định Đại Nam Hội Điển Sự Lệ, The Great Encyclopedia of History of the Nguyễn Dynasty
  32. ^ a b c d Stein Tonnesson, International Peace Research Institute, Oslo, The South China Sea in the Age of European Decline, pp. 3-4, 12, 40-41, Modern Asian Studies, Cambridge University Press, United Kingdom, 2006. Retrieved on 4-13-2009.
  33. ^ 1954: Peace deal ends Indo-China war, BBC News. Retrieved on 4-23-2009.
  34. ^ Robert B. Asprey, War in the Shadows, IUniverse, 2002. ISBN 0-595-22594-2. Retrieved on 4-23-2009.
  35. ^ Myron H. Nordquist et al., University of Virginia, Center for Oceans Law, Security Flashpoints, pp.142-143, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1998. Retrieved on 4-17-2009.
  36. ^ Regarding the 1958 Letter by Pham Van Dong BBC Vietnamese 2018--09-23
  37. ^ http://www.hudong.com/wiki/%E3%80%8A%E5%8D%97%E6%B5%B7%E9%A3%8E%E4%BA%91%E3%80%8B
  38. ^ http://www.youku.com/playlist_show/id_1041113.html

Notes

  1. ^ Hainan was a part of Guangdong by then.

Sources

External links

Prefecture level
(no intermediate County-level divisions, see Administration of Sanya)
County level
Administration Office