Saini people

Saini or Shoorsaini
Classification Yaduvanshi[1](Shoorsaini) [2] Kshatriya/Rajput [3][4][5][6][7][8][9]
Religions Hinduism and Sikhism
Languages Mainly Punjabi and its dialects like Dogri & Pahari, Haryanvi and Hindi
Populated States Punjab (India) predominantly, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, & Jammu & Kashmir[10][11]
Subdivisions Punjabi and Haryanvi

Saini (Punjabi:ਸੈਣੀ) (Hindi: सैनी ) is a Rajput[3][4][5][6][7] descent caste of India. Sainis, also known as Shoorsaini (Hindi: शूरसैनी) [12][13][14] in Puranic literature, are now found by their original name only in Punjab and in the neighboring states of Haryana, Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh.[10][11] They trace their descent from Rajputs [2][3][4][7][6] of the Yaduvanshi[12][15] [2] [12][15] [1] Surasena [14][16] lineage, originating from Yadava King Shurasena, [17][14][7] who was the grandfather of both Krishna and the legendary Pandava warriors. Sainis relocated to Punjab from Mathura and surrounding areas over different periods of time.[3][18][19]

Like most other Rajput origin tribes of Punjab,[20][21][22][23][24] Sainis also took up farming during medieval period due to the Turko-Islamic political domination. As both a statutory agricultural tribe and a designated Martial Class during British era [25][26], Sainis had been chiefly engaged in both agriculture and military service since then until the recent times.[20][27][5] However, since the independence of India, Sainis have diversified into different trades and professions other than military and agriculture. Sainis are now also seen in increasing numbers as businessmen, lawyers, professors, civil servants, engineers, doctors and research scientists, etc.[28]

Sainis profess in both Hinduism and Sikhism. Several Saini families profess in both the faiths simultaneuosly and inter-marry freely in keeping with the age-old composite Bhakti and Sikh spiritual traditions of Punjab. Until recent times Sainis were strictly an endogamous kshatriya group and inter-married only within select clans.[29] They also have a national level organization called Saini Rajput Mahasabha located in Delhi which was established in 1920.[30]

Contents

History

Main article: Saini history

Ancient era

Ancient Greek traveller and ambassdor to India, Megasthenes, encountered the Shoorsainis, then a ruling tribe with their capital in Mathura. There is also an academic opinion that the ancient king Porus, the opponent of Alexander the Great, belonged to this Yadava sept.[31][32][33][34] Megasthenes had described Shoorsainis as Sourasenoi.[35]

Saini rulers of Eastern Rajputana

A post-Kushan Shoorsaini kingdom is said to have existed near Delhi and eastern Rajasthan.[2]

" The above group of Yadavas came back from Sindh to Brij area and occupied Bayana in Bharatpur district. After some struggle the 'Balai' inhabitants were forced by Shodeo and Saini rulers to move out of Brij land and thus they occupied large areas.". [2]

— Encyclopaedia Indica: India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Volume 100, pp 119 – 120

A General of this dynasty by the name of Gurdan Saini, who led Rana Hamir Dev's Rajput army against the Khiljis, was also mentioned by poet-scholar Amir Khusro. [36][37][38][39][40]

British era

During British period Sainis were enlisted as a statutory agricultural tribe [20] as well as a martial class.[25][41][42][43][44] [26] During the British era, several influential Saini landlords were also appointed as Zaildars, or revenue-collectors, in many districts of Punjab and modern Haryana.[45][46][47][48][49] Sainis also took active part in the freedom movement of India and many insurgents from Saini community were imprisoned, hanged or killed in encounters with colonial police during the days of British Raj.[50][51][52][53][54]

Distribution

According to the census of 1881, Sainis were not found outside the Punjab region (today comprising Punjab, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, and Jammu and Kashmir). According to A. E. Barstow the total population of Sainis as per 1911 census was only 113,000 and their presence was restricted mainly to Delhi, Karnal, Ambala and Lyallpur (modern Faislabad in Pakistan) districts, the Jalandhar and Lahore Divisions and the Kalsia, Nahan, Nalagarh, Mandi, Kapurthala and Patiala states. According to him, only 400 of them were Muslims and the rest were Hindu and Sikh.[10] As per 1881 census the largest Saini clans were in Hoshiarpur district of Jalandhar division where they were in quite commanding position in terms of land holdings and influence, holding at least two zails. In Lahore division they were chiefly concentrated in Gurdaspur where the Salahrias (Salariya) were returned as the largest Saini clan. The Sainis of Jammu area were essentially part of Sainis from the bordering Gurdaspur district.[55]

Present day cross-reference of divisions of British Punjab

The British Punjab Jalandhar division comprised the following districts: Kangra, Hoshiarpur, Jalandhar, Ludhiana and Ferozepur. Lahore division comprised the following districts: Lahore, Amritsar, Gurdaspur, Sialkot, Gujranawala and Sheikhupura. The present day Ropar district fell in Ambala district before partition. Hence Ropar Sainis were included in that district in the colonial accounts.[56]

It is clear from Barstow's account that the majority of the Saini population fell in the areas which are now part of present day Punjab, with a smaller population in the areas falling in present Haryana and Himachal Pradesh, and absolutely no Saini population in UP or Rajasthan or beyond. People returning themselves as Saini in Bijnore and Saharanpur in 1881 census were excluded from Saini category in 1901 census after mistakes of the previous census were detected.[11][57]

1881 census

The population of Sainis has not been enumerated separately since independence but their relative population is rather small compared to the other groups. As per 1881 total Saini population all over India was no more than 137,380 which was further reduced to 106,011 in the 1901 census .[11][57] In the same census the total population of Khatris as 439,089.[11] while according to 1881 census figures the population of Jats was 2630,994 on an all-India basis. This makes proportionate Saini population to be approximately 1/4 of Khatris and 1/25 of Jats.[58] Acoording to another contemporary authoritative ethnological work written in 1896,[59] Jat population was 4,625,523 and Saini population was 125,352, making comparative ratio 1:37.

Diaspora

A significant section of Punjabi Sainis now lives in Western countries such as the United States, Canada, and United Kingdom.

Neo-Saini

In 1881 census, a minuscule Saini presence was also recorded in Bijnore and Saharanpur, which now falls in Western Uttar Pradesh but in this area some people returning themselves as 'Saini' were said to be inter-marrying with Malis who are not acknowledged to be authentic Sainis by those of submontane Punjab, Haryana and HP, all of whom claim Yaduvanshi Rajput descent from Mathura and have maintained their historical Rajput character to the extent it was possible for any other Hindu Rajput origin tribe in a Muslim ruled Punjab.[3][7] In the census of 1901 these Malis in Bijnor area, who were included in Saini category by mistake, were excluded from Saini category and the overall Saini population was reduced by over 21% to 106,011.[11][57] So this population group cannot be regarded Saini as authentic Sainis have never had any marital relations with them (a fact acknowledged by Ibbetson).[62] Another noteworthy fact is that in census of 1881 there was absolutely no Saini population recorded in Rajputana (present Rajasthan), although almost all of the Mali groups, who returned their caste as Mali in 1881 census, now claim Saini identity.[60][61][63] However, this is not the same community as Yaduvanshi Sainis of Punjab This is testified by the fact that census of 1881 [64] There was a formal order issued by D.M. Field , the Chief Minister of princely state of Jodhpur, in 1937 formally granting the request of Mali community of Rajputana to be renamed as "Saini" or "Sainik Kshatriya" in official records.[65] These neo-Saini groups cannot be treated as part of Saini fold and simply need to be treated and studied as part of the group named after their original identity.

Villages

As per colonial records of Jalandhar district of 1904 Sainis held a number of villages near the eastern border of Nawashahr and in the south-west of the tahsil.

A list of prominent villages that were fully or partly owned by Sainis in Jalandhar and Nawanshahr Tahsils of British era may be found in the 1904 Punjab District Gazetteers.[66]

Apart from the included villages in Jullundhur district of British Punjab, Sainis were also amongst the proprietors or landowners of Phagwara. It needs to be duly noted that the Saini population in Jullundhur district was only 14324 as per 1880 records.[67] So the above list only contains a small fraction of total Saini landownership in Punjab. The largest Saini estates and villages were in Hoshiarpur and Dasuya tahsils of Hoshiarpur district where they were much more influential and numerous. Ambala division (which included Ropar district) also had a large number of Saini owned villages. There were 54 villages that were held by Sainis in Gurdaspur district.

Religion

Saini Hindu

Though a large number of Saini's are Hindu, their religious practices are best described as eclecticism of Sanatani Vedic and Sikh traditions. Most Sainis are proud of their Vedic past and play willing hosts to learned Brahmin priests. At the same time, there is hardly a Hindu Saini who does not treat the Sikh gurus with extreme reverence.

Saini Sikh

With the rise of Sikhism in the fifteenth century, many Saini's adopted Sikhism. So, there is a substantial Sikh Saini population today in Punjab . The boundary lines between Hindu and Sikh Sainis are quite blurred as they freely inter-marry. Within one extended family both Hindus and Sikhs can be found.

In 1881 census only 10% of Sainis were returned as Sikhs but in 1931 census the number of Sikh Sainis ballooned to over 57%. It is to be noted that a similar demographic shift was also noted among other rural communities of Punjab such as Jat, Mahton, Kamboh etc.[68] The reason generally attributed for the post-1901 demographic shift towards Sikhism are explained as follows[69]:

Marriage

Traditionally, Sainis have been married through Vedic ceremonies performed by brahmins of Sanatani tradition. However, in 20th century some Hindu families started opting for Arya Samaj based vedic ceremonies and Sikh Sainis started opting for Anand Karaj ritual.

Sainis were strictly endogamous until the late 20th century, but had strict regulations to prevent inbreeding. Generally the marriage could not take place if:[29]

Prior to 1950s, it was not possible for Saini bride and groom to see each other before the marriage. The marriage decision was strictly taken by elders of the both families. Bride and groom got to see each other only after the marriage. If the groom attempted to see his would-be wife stealthily, it would lead to breaking up of the betrothal by girl's family in most or all cases. However since 1950s, this is no longer the case even for arranged marriages within the community.

Divorce

Prior to The Hindu Marriage Act of 1955, it was not possible for a Saini man to divorce his wife.[29] Divorce was non-existent and there was very strong community taboo and stigma against it. Other than the reason of infidelity, it was not possible for a Saini man to desert his wife without facing ostracism and inviting stigma for his whole family. But if a Saini man repudiated his wife on the basis of infidelity or elopement, reconciliation was not possible again under any circumstances. The consequences were often grave under this condition. The woman thus accused most certainly faced ostracism for the rest of her life. No other man from the community would marry a woman thus repudiated. In great many cases a certain prospect of honor killing loomed over the 'offenders'.[70][71] However, there was intervention by village elders in all cases to prevent any woman from being wrongfully accused by malicious in-laws. The husband's family in such cases also did not escape some form of stigma. So situations like these would come to fore very rarely, only if there was a genuine grievance.

However, divorce is now a possibility among the present day Sainis and it does not attract the stigma and ostracism that it once did.

Widow remarriage

Historically, Sainis were not listed among those Punjab castes which allowed widow remarriage.[72]

Levirate marriage (karewa) was generally not permisssible among Sainis,[29][72] and the elder brother's wife had the same status as of his own mother and younger brother's wife had the same status as of his daughter. This relationship continued even after the death of the brother. After the death of a married male member the responsibility of taking care of his widow was collectively shared by the deceased's brothers or failing that his cousins. Owing to close-knit social fabric of Saini owned villages, the widow and her wards were also collectively taken care of by the larger community-based brotherhood (called Sharika in Punjabi) in the village.

Among present day Sainis the taboo against widow remarriage, especially if they are widowed at young age, has now dissolved or almost disappeared even in Punjab.[29] However, in the village based communities there might still be some resistance left.

Military tradition

Sainis have a distinguished record as soldiers in the armies of pre-British princely states, British India and independent India. As an officially designated Martial Class, Sainis fought in both the World Wars and won some of the highest gallantry awards for 'conspicuous bravery'.[73][74][75] Subedar Joginder Singh, who won Param Vir Chakra, Indian Army's highest war time gallantry award, in 1962 India-China War was also a Saini of Sahnan sub clan.[76]

ABO blood group study

ABO blood group and p, q and r gene frequency distribution study done on the Sainis of Punjab by Department of Anthroplogy, University of Delhi, which was published in 1961 in American Journal of Physical Anthropology , stated that there is a complete overlap between the blood strain and genetic frequencies of Sainis and other Punjabi groups of Rajput extraction (mostly from present day Himachal Pradesh) and Punjabis from Peshawar in North Western Frontier Province. The same study also concluded that ABO blood group and genetic frequencies of Jats and Khatris of Punjab significantly differed from those of Rajput groups of the region. Some other groups with which ABO strains and gene distribution frequency of Sainis resembled were Khatris, Kayasthas and Brahmins of Uttar Pradesh. The similarity of Sainis of Punjab with the latter groups of UP was not as close as with the Peshawaris and broader Punjabi Rajput group which showed Chi-squared coefficients of 0.631 and 1.20 respectively, degrees of variance which have no statistical significance. The Chi-squared coefficient for ABO blood group distribution between Sainis and Khatris, Kayasthas and Brahmins of Uttar Pradesh were 2.086, 4.771 and 4.520 respectively which are close but somewhat distant when compared with those in respect of Punjabi Rajputs and Peshawaris.[77]

Clans

Main article: List of Saini clans

Notables

Main article: List of Saini people

There are several notable people of Saini community in the public space. Computer scientist, Avtar Saini, who co-led the design and development of Intel's flagship Pentium microprocessor, belongs to this community.[78] The current CEO of global banking giant Master Card, Ajay Banga,[79] is also a Saini. Popular newspaper daily Ajit, which is the world's largest Punjabi language news daily,[80] is also owned by Sainis.[81][82] Creator and director of Rock Garden, Chandigarh, Nek Chand is also a Saini.

See also

References

  1. ^ a b "It is said about Balaram-Hercules that he came as a stranger to Greece from outside. (In my opinion he was Bhim of Harikula and Col. Tod also holds the same view). Yaduvanshis ruled here. 'Yehudi' is the distortion of 'Yadu'. In the land in which Saini Yaduvanshis settled, it was called 'Sinai'." Ghazni to Jaiselmer (Pre-medieval History of the Bhatis), p 42, Hari Singh Bhati, Publisher: Hari Singh Bhati, 1998, Printers: Sankhala Printers, Bikaner
  2. ^ a b c d e f " Before the formation of Bharatpur state the capital of Sinsinwars was at Sinsini. Sinsini earlier was known as 'Shoor Saini' and its inhabitants were known as Saur Sen. The influence of Saur Sen people can be judged from the fact that the dialect of the entire north India at one time was known as 'Saursaini'. Shoor Sain people were Chandra Vanshi kshatriyas. Lord Krishna was also born in vrishni branch of Chandravansh. A group of Yadavas was follower of Shiv and Vedic God in Sindh. Some inscriptions and coins of these people have been found in 'Mohenjo Daro'. ' Shiv Shani Sevi' words have been found engraved on one inscription. Yajur Veda mentions 'Shinay Swah'. 'Sini Isar' was found on one gold coin. Atharva Veda mentions 'Sinwali' for Sini God. The above group of Yadavas came back from Sindh to Brij area and occupied Bayana in Bharatpur district. After some struggle the 'Balai' inhabitants were forced by Shodeo and Saini rulers to move out of Brij land and thus they occupied large areas.", Encyclopaedia Indica: India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Volume 100, pp 119–120, SS Sashi, Anmol Publications, 1996/ Alternate Secondary Source: http://www.bharatpuronline.com/history.html
  3. ^ a b c d e "In the Punjab in the sub- mountainous region the community came to be known as 'Saini'. It maintained its Rajput character despite migration." Castes and Tribes of Rajasthan, p 108, Sukhvir Singh Gahlot, Banshi Dhar, Jain Brothers, 1989
  4. ^ a b c d "A few adventurers came to terms with the invaders and obtained from them grants of land. The Sainis trace their origin to a Rajput clan who came from their original home near Muttra [sic] on Jumna, south of Delhi, in defence of the Hindus against the first Muhammadan invasions.." The land of the five rivers; an economic history of the Punjab from the earliest times to the year of grace 1890, p 100, Hugh Kennedy Trevaskis, [London] Oxford University press, 1928
  5. ^ a b c "One of the main explanation for different names Sainis are known has been the emergence of adverse political circumstances in history. While many powerful kings were responsible for naming the community after them, the constant invasions of by the Moghuls of Hindu dominated states, and the consequent need to keep themselves unidentified, compelled the community members to move from one place to others, take up different occupations...and when the need arose they as true Rajputs took up military service also. It is in this perspective that some trace the origin of the word 'Saini' to from Sena or army in need. " People of India: Haryana, pp 430–431, Kumar Suresh Singh, Madan Lal Sharma, A. K. Bhatia, Anthropological Survey of India, Published by Published on behalf of Anthropological Survey of India by Manohar Publishers, 1994
  6. ^ a b c "He went to a landlord at Nathal who was called the King of the area. He was a Saini Rajput...." A farmer who fought against injustice, Madan Mohan Sharma, The Daily Excelsior, June 28, 2010
  7. ^ a b c d e f "They had their kingdom in Karauli in Rajasthan. They were called Shoorsainis. Sri Krishna's grandfather was Shoorsen because of which the region around Mathura was known as Shoorsen and Yadavas of this region were called Shoorsainis." , Mangi Lal Mahecha, Rājasthāna ke Rājapūta (The Rajputs of Rajasthan) , Rahasthan, 1965
  8. ^ Agravāla jāti kā prācīna itihāsa, Satyaketu Vidyalankar, pp 86, Śrī Sarasvatī Sadana, 1997
  9. ^ "He was a Saini man from the Rajput community, which meant that he, like his ancestors before him, would be a trained soldier." Saini Rajputs In India, U.S. Center for World Mission, October 11, 2010
  10. ^ a b c The Sikhs, an Ethnology: An Ethnology, p 71, By A. E. Barstow Published by B.R. Pub. Corp., 1985, Original from the University of Michigan
  11. ^ a b c d e f Census of India, 1901, p 50, By India Census Commissioner, Edward Albert Gait, Published by Office of the Superintendent of Government Printing, India, 1902
  12. ^ a b c "The Sainis believe that their ancestors were Yadavas and that it was the same lineage in which Krishna was born. In the 43rd generation of the Yadavas there was a king known as Shoor or Sur, the son of King Vidaratha....It was in the name of these, father and son, that the community was known as Shoorsaini or Sursaini." People of India: Haryana, p 430, Kumar Suresh Singh, Madan Lal Sharma, A. K. Bhatia, Anthropological Survey of India, Published by Published on behalf of Anthropological Survey of India by Manohar Publishers, 1994
  13. ^ Editorial, Thursday, 05 March 2009 , Ajit Weekly
  14. ^ a b c "Referencing the historical texts extant and available during his time and demonstrating Chandra Vansha (Lunar Dynasty) of Lord Krishna as the origin of Saini community and reproducing the entire lineage of Chandra Vansha he concluded: " The progeny of Chandra Vanshi King Yadu started being called Yadava. After 42 generations in the same lineage was born a ruler called King Shoorsen who controlled Mathura and surrounding area...After Chaudhary Lal Saini's Taarikh Quam Shoorsaini the other historians of Shoorsaini community (which is also called Saini community) have regarded Shiv Lal's history work to be the basis of their research and publications", Dr. Pritam Saini as quoted in Saini Jagat : Utpati Ate Vikas, Professor Surjit Singh Nanua, p 115, Manjot Publications, Patiala, 2008
  15. ^ a b "In a four-fold division of the Hindu social order, the Sainis invariably claim a Kshatriya origin. Among different groups of Kshatriya, the Sainis are the ones who consider themselves Rajputs." People of India: Haryana, p 430, Kumar Suresh Singh, Madan Lal Sharma, A. K. Bhatia, Anthropological Survey of India, Published by Published on behalf of Anthropological Survey of India by Manohar Publishers, 1994
  16. ^ "Surasena was a Yadava. One of his descendants could, therefore, call himself a Yadava or a Surasena as he liked..." Chauhān Dynasties: A Study of Chauhān Political History, Chauhān Political Institutions, and Life in the Chauhān Dominions, from 800 to 1316 A.D., By Dasharatha Sharma, p 103, Published by Motilal Banarsidass, 1975
  17. ^ People of India: A – G., Volume 4, pp 3085, Oxford Univ. Press, 1998
  18. ^ "Another numerous tribe, the Saini (14000), also trace their origin to a few ancestors who came from their home in Mathura (North-West Provinces) in defence of the Hindus against the first Moslem invasions", The Indian village community, p 274, Baden Henry Baden-Powell, Adegi Graphics LLC, 1957
  19. ^ Visnu Purana, Section 5
  20. ^ a b c The Punjab Alienation of Land Act. XIII of 1900 (Lahore: Amrit Electric Press, 1924), pp 146–9, Appendix A — Notified Tribes
  21. ^ Glossary of the Tribes and Castes of the Punjab and North West Frontier Province, pp 33, 39, 102, 154, 233, 239, 325, 240, 302, 534, H.A. Rose, Ibbetson, Maclagan
  22. ^ Glossary of the Tribes and Castes of the Punjab and North West Frontier Province, p 361, H.A. Rose, Ibbetson, Maclagan
  23. ^ The other 'agriculturists' were Rajputs, Mughals and Pathans with some Gujars and Dogars." ' 'The Indian Army and the Making of Punjab, p 149, By Rajit K. Mazumder, Permanent Black
  24. ^ Rajit K. Mazumder (2003). The Indian army and the making of Punjab. Orient Blackswan. pp. 105–. ISBN 9788178240596. http://books.google.com/books?id=O4Wop9vwS9sC&pg=PA105. Retrieved 31 May 2011. 
  25. ^ a b "Men of this tribe not seldom take service especially in cavalry." Final report of the revised settlement of the Jullundur District in the Punjab, p 84, W.E. Purser, BCS, The "Civil And Military Gazette" Press, Contractors to the Punjab Government, Lahore, 1892
  26. ^ a b "The chief areas for Saini recruitment were the Ambala, Hoshiarpur, and Jullundur Districts. ", The Golden Galley: the story of the Second Punjab Regiment, 1761–1947, p 313, Sir Geoffrey Betham, Herbert Valentine Rupert Geary,rinted for the 2d Punjab Regiment Officers ̕Association at the University Press, by C. Batey, printer to the university, 1956
  27. ^ Saini Rajputs In India, U.S. Center for World Mission, October 11, 2010
  28. ^ "The members of Saini community are employed in business and white-collar jobs and as teachers, administrators, lawyers, doctors and defence personnel." People of India, National Series Volume VI, India's Communities N-Z, p 3091, KS Singh, Anthropological Survey of India, Oxford University Press, 1998
  29. ^ a b c d e Endogamy and village/gotra level exogamy: "The Saini are endogamous community and observe exogamy at village and gotra level." Present day widow marriage & divorce liberalization: "Nowadays, the Saini community allows remarriage of widows and widowers and divorces of both sexes. Reportedly there has been a liberalization of the marriage rules within the community." People of India, National Series Volume VI, India's Communities N-Z, p 3090, KS Singh, Anthropological Survey of India, Oxford University Press, 1998
  30. ^ People of India: Haryana, p 437, Kumar Suresh Singh, Madan Lal Sharma, A. K. Bhatia, Anthropological Survey of India, Published by Published on behalf of Anthropological Survey of India by Manohar Publishers, 1994
  31. ^ "We have assigned to the Yadus the honour of furnishing King Puru, who opposed Alexander", History of India: (from the earliest times to the fall of the Mughal Empire), pp 86, 91–95, Indian Press (1947),Dr. Ishwari Prashad, ASIN: B0007KEPTA
  32. ^ "It is evident from this that Krishna, Raja Porus, Bhagat Nanua, Bhai Kahnaiya and many other historical personages were related with the Saini brotherhood" Dr. Pritam Saini, Preface to Saini Jagat: Utpati Ate Vikas, 26-04-2002, Professor Surjit Singh Nanuan, Saini Jagat: Utpati Ate Vikas, Manjot Publications, Patiala, 2008
  33. ^ Proceedings, p 72, Indian History Congress, Published 1957
  34. ^ According to Arrian, Diodorus, and Strabo, Megasthenes described an Indian tribe called Sourasenoi, who especially worshiped Herakles in their land, and this land had two cities, Methora and Kleisobora, and a navigable river, the Jobares. As was common in the ancient period, the Greeks sometimes described foreign gods in terms of their own divinities, and there is a little doubt that the Sourasenoi refers to the Shurasenas, a branch of the Yadu dynasty to which Krishna belonged; Herakles to Krishna, or Hari-Krishna: Mehtora to Mathura, where Krishna was born; Kleisobora to Krishnapura, meaning "the city of Krishna"; and the Jobares to the Yamuna, the famous river in the Krishna story. Qunitus Curtius also mentions that when Alexander the Great confronted Porus, Porus's soldiers were carrying an image of Herakles in their vanguard. Krishna: a sourcebook, p 5, Edwin Francis Bryant, Oxford University Press US, 2007
  35. ^ "This Herakles is held in special honour by the Sourasenoi, an Indian tribe, who possess two large cities, Methora and Cleisobora" Arrian, Indika, viii, Methora is Mathura
  36. ^ "Saini was a great general and had led several expeditions into the country of Malwa and Gujarat" History of the Khaljis, A.D. 1290–1320: A. D. 1290–1320, p 28 Kishori Saran Lal, Published by Asia Publishing House, 1967
  37. ^ see page 541 of the above referenced book by Ellot and Dowson. Books.google.ca. http://books.google.ca/books?id=WN4NAAAAIAAJ&printsec=titlepage&dq=Gurdan+Saini&source=gbs_summary_r&cad=0. Retrieved 2009-09-20. 
  38. ^ A Study of the Cahamana Inscriptions of Rajasthan, Anita Sudan, p 79, Published by Research Publishers, 1989
  39. ^ A Comprehensive History of India : The Delhi Sultanat, A.D. 1206–1526 / edited by Mohammad Habib and Khaliq Ahmad Nizami, p 318, Kallidaikurichi Aiyah Nilakanta Sastri, Indian History Congress Published by Orient Longmans, 1957
  40. ^ Studies in Medieval Rajasthan History, p 20, By Manjit Singh Ahluwalia, Published by [Aligarh?], 1970, Original from the University of Michigan, Digitized 2 Nov 2006, 56 pages
  41. ^ Punjab District Gazetteers, Volume XIV A., Jullundur District with Maps, p 269, 1904, Lahore, Printed at the "Civil and Military Gazette" Press
  42. ^ The Indian Army and the Making of Punjab, pp 99, 205, By Rajit K. Mazumder, Permanent Black
  43. ^ Annual Class Return, 1919, pp 364–7
  44. ^ Annual Class Return,1925, pp 96–99
  45. ^ Final Report of Revised Settlement, Hoshiarpur District, pp 58, 59 1879–84 By J. A. L. Montgomery
  46. ^ " Chaudhri Dewan Chand Saini was another lawyer practicing on the criminal side those days. Later on he became Rai Sahib and leader of the Criminal Bar, but unfortunately died of cancer at a comparatively young age." Looking Back: The Autobiography of Mehr Chand Mahajan, Former Chief Justice of India, p 45, Mehr Chand Mahajan, Published by Asia Pub. House, 1963
  47. ^ History of Hisar: From Inception to Independence, 1935–1947, p 312, M. M. Juneja, Published by Modern Book Co., 1989
  48. ^ The Punjab Legislative Council Debates. Official Report, pp 1028, 1047, Published By Legislative Council, Punjab (India), 1936, Item notes: v.27, Original from the University of California, Digitized 7 Feb 2007
  49. ^ "Though majority of the Sainis in village I, who are top ranked in the caste hierarchy..." Emerging pattern of rural leadership, Mehta, Shiv Rattan, Wiley Eastern, 1972
  50. ^ Who's who of Indian Martyrs, pp 83, 165, By Yashwantrao Balwantrao Chavan, India Ministry of Home Affairs, Published by Ministry of Education and Youth Services, Govt. of India, Item notes: v.1, Original from the University of Michigan
  51. ^ "..the second martyr of march 16 was Harnam Singh Saini of Fatehgarh, Hoshiarpur. He was arrested from Battavia by the Dutch." A day to remember Lahore's martyrs, 16 Mar 2002, KS Dhaliwal, Time of India [1]
  52. ^ Indian Independence Movement in East Asia: The Most Authentic Account of the I. N. A. and the Azad Hind Government, Compiled from the Original Official Records, p 102, By Kesar Singh Giani, Published by Singh Bros., 1947, Original from the University of Michigan
  53. ^ Senior journalist, Punjabi writer Ajit Saini passes away, Punjab Newsline Network, Monday, 10 December 2007
  54. ^ Raja Nahar Singh Ka Balidan, Dr. Ranjit Singh Saini (MA, LLB, Ph.D), p 10, New Bhartiya Book Corporation, 2000 Edition, Printers- Amar Jain Printing Press, New Delhi.
  55. ^ "The Saini do not appear to have returned any large clans except in Hushyárpur, of which district some of the largest clans are shown in the margin, and in Gurdáspur where 1,541 Saini showed their clans as Salahria." W.Chichele Plowden, ( 1883 ), Census of British India taken on the 17th of February 1881, Volume III, London, Eyre and Spottiswoode, p. 257
  56. ^ The Social & Economic History of Punjab, 1901–1939 (including Haryana, and Himachal Pradesh, Administrative Divisions of the Punjab), p 367, B. S. Saini MA Ph.D, Ess Ess Publications, Delhi, 1975
  57. ^ a b c "The decrease of nearly 21 per cent is chiefly found in Bijnor district where the figures indicate that at last census Malis were included in Saini." Census of India, 1901, p 227, By India Census Commissioner, Edward Albert Gait, Published by Office of the Superintendent of Government Printing, India, 1902
  58. ^ W.Chichele Plowden, ( 1883 ), The Indian Empire Census of 1881 Statistics of Population Vol. II., Calcutta, Superintendent of Government Printing India, p. 30
  59. ^ Hindu castes and sects : an exposition of the origin of the Hindu caste system and the bearing of the sects towards each other and towards other religious systems, pp285, Jogendra Nath Bhattachary, Publisher: Calcutta : Thacker, Spink, 1896
  60. ^ a b Rajasthan, Kumar Suresh Singh, B. K. Lavania, Dipak Kumar Samanta, S. K. Mandal, N. N. Vyas, p 845, Anthropological Survey of India
  61. ^ a b "...the Malis (ie gardners who call themselves Saini now).." A Muslim Sub-Caste of North India: Problems of Cultural Integration Partap C. Aggarwal Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 1, No. 4 (Sep. 10, 1966), pp. 159–161, Published by: Economic and Political Weekly
  62. ^ "...that some of the higher tribes of the same class (Sainis) will not marry with them (Malis)." W.Chichele Plowden, ( 1883 ), Census of British India taken on the 17th of February 1881, Volume III, London, Eyre and Spottiswoode, p. 256
  63. ^ "At the time of 1941 Census most of them got registered themselves as Saini (Sainik Kshatriya) Malis." p 7, Census of India, 1961, Volume 14, Issue 5, Office of the Registrar General, India.
  64. ^ W.Chichele Plowden, ( 1883 ), The Indian Empire Census of 1881 Statistics of Population Vol. II., Calcutta, Superintendent of Government Printing India, pp 243–258, 294
  65. ^ Order No. 2240, Jodhpur, the 6th February, 1937, D.M.Field, Chief Minister, Government of Jodhpur, Jodhpur State Archives
  66. ^ Punjab District Gazetteers,Volume Xiv, Jullundur District, 1904, p 93, Lahore, Printed At The "Civil And Military Gazette" Press, 1908
  67. ^ Final report of the revised settlement of the Jullundur District in the Punjab, Appendix XIII, p 50, W.E. Purser, BCS, The "Civil And Military Gazette" Press, Contractors to the Punjab Government, Lahore, 1892
  68. ^ History and ideology: the Khalsa over 300 years,Contributed papers on Sikh history; previously presented at the various sessions of Indian History Congress, pp 124, J. S. Grewal, Indu Banga, Tulika, 1999
  69. ^ "Thus the Hindu Jats decreased from 15,39574 in 1901 to 9,92309 in 1931, while the Sikh Jats increased from 13,88877 to 21,33152 during the same period.", The social & economic history of the Punjab, 1901–1939, including Haryana & Himachal Pradesh, B. S. Saini, Ess Ess Publications, 1975
  70. ^ "In March 1994 in village Nayagaon in Haryana, Asha was hacked to death and so was her lover Manoj by her kin.' Asha belonged to the numerically and economically strong Saini caste in the village.", Enforcing Cultural Codes: Gender and Violence in Northern India, Author(s): Prem Chowdhry, Source: Economic and Political Weekly, Vol. 32, No. 19 (May 10-16, 1997), pp. 1019-1028, Published by: Economic and Political Weekly
  71. ^ In as late as 1994, a Saini girl who had eloped with non-Saini boy, was lynched by her family along with the boy in Nayagaon village in Haryana. See the article Silence of the lambs, Sep 2, 2001 Times of India edition [2]
  72. ^ a b "As regards re-marriage of widows, the only classes that re-marry are Jats, Lohars, Jhinwars, Tarkhans, Mahatams, who are allowed by their custom to go through the ceremony of Karewa." Punjab District Gazetteers,Volume Xiv, Jullundur District, 1904, p 59, Lahore, Printed At The "Civil And Military Gazette" Press, 1908
  73. ^ "The Order of St. George, Imperial Russia's highest exclusively military order, was instituted in 1769 and came to be considered among the most prestigious military awards in the world... The order was awarded to officers and generals for special gallantry, such as, personally leading his troops in rout of a superior enemy force, or capturing a fortress, etc. Before membership in the Order could be granted, a candidate's case had to be investigated by a council composed of Knights of the Order." Source: http://www.gwpda.org/medals/russmedl/russia.html
  74. ^ "I will give you here the names of three of those men who have earned fame by their heroism. Jamadar Gurmukh Singh, a Saini Sikh of Gadram Badi in Rupar, won the 1st Class Order of Merit and the 2nd Class Cross of the Russian Order of St. George for his splendid courage on the night of the 1st March 1916 when he advanced under the greatest difficulties, continually crawling forward and digging himself in." War speeches (1918), p 128, Author: O'Dwyer, Michael Francis, (Sir) 1864–, Subject: World War, 1914–1918; World War, 1914–1918 – Punjab Publisher: Lahore Printed by the Superintendent Government Printing
  75. ^ "his conspicuous gallantry in action on the 17th November 1914 when with a party of Sappers under the command of a British Officer he was always to the fore and led his men with great determination into the enemy's trenches. Subedar-Major Jagindar Singh, Saini Sikh of Kheri Salabatpur in Bupar, gained the 2nd Class Order of Merit at the battle of Loos in Belgium for striking leadership and conspicuous bravery in action after most of his company and all but one British Officer in his regiment had been killed or wounded. This officer was also awarded the 2nd Class of the Order of British India for distinguished conduct in the field."War speeches (1918), p 129, Author: O'Dwyer, Michael Francis, (Sir) 1864–, Subject: World War, 1914–1918; World War, 1914–1918 – Punjab Publisher: Lahore Printed by the Superintendent Government Printing
  76. ^ a b Saini Jagat: Utpati Ate Vikas, p 121, Prof. Surjit Singh Nanuan, Manjota Publications, Patiala, 2008
  77. ^ ''"Sainis show significant differences from only Jats, Chamars and Khatris of Punjab. They show non-significant difference with Rajputs of Punjab and Peshawaris. They also show non-significant differences with Punjab (Boyd) , Kayasthas, Khatri and Brahmin of UP (Majumdar) " American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 1961 Sep;19:223-5.The study of ABO blood groups of Sainis of Punjab, SINGH IP, SINGH D.,PMID 13913332
  78. ^ "Saini had co-led the development of the Pentium processor and was responsible for the first phase development of Intel’s 64-bit architecture – the Itanium processor. Driven by desire to work in India, he moved back in 1999 as director, south Asia." ,Avtar Saini joins eInfochips board, 29 Nov, 2005, 1306 hrs, IST,Indiatimes News Network
  79. ^ http://www.mastercard.com/us/company/en/newsroom/mc_names_Ajay_Banga_president_and_chief_operating_officer.html
  80. ^ World's No. 1 Punjabi Newspaper
  81. ^ "From among the Sikh newspaper owners, one is a Jat and the other a Saini. There is no low caste newspaper proprietor." The Indian journal of public administration: quarterly journal of the Indian Institute of Public Administration, p 39, By Indian Institute of Public Administration, Published by The Institute, 1982
  82. ^ "The exceptions are The Tribune and Ajit. a Punjabi daily run by a Saini-Sikh", India's new capitalists: caste, business, and industry in a modern nation, Harish Damodaran, Palgrave Macmillan, 2008

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