Shoe

A shoe is an item of footwear intended to protect and comfort the human foot while doing various activities. Shoes are also used as an item of decoration. The design of shoes has varied enormously through time and from culture to culture, with appearance originally being tied to function. Additionally fashion has often dictated many design elements, such as whether shoes have very high heels or flat ones. Contemporary footwear varies widely in style, complexity and cost. Basic sandals may consist of only a thin sole and simple strap. High fashion shoes may be made of very expensive materials in complex construction and sell for thousands of dollars a pair. Other shoes are for very specific purposes, such as boots specially designed for mountaineering or skiing.

Shoes have traditionally been made from leather, wood or canvas, but are increasingly made from rubber, plastics, and other petrochemical-derived materials.

Until recent years, shoes were not worn by most of the world's population—largely because they could not afford them. Only with the advent of mass production, making shoes available very cheaply, has shoe-wearing become predominant.

The foot contains more bones than any other single part of the body. Though it has evolved over hundreds of thousands of years in relation to vastly varied terrain and climate conditions, the foot is still vulnerable to environmental hazards such as sharp rocks and hot ground, which shoes can protect against.

Contents

History

The earliest known shoes are sandals dating from about 8000 to 7000 BC and found in Oregon, USA in 1938.[1] The world's oldest leather shoe, made from a single piece of cowhide laced with a leather cord along seams at the front and back, was found in a cave in Armenia in 2008 and is believed to date to 3,500 BC.[2][3][4] Ötzi the Iceman's shoes, dating to 3,300 BC, featured brown bearskin bases, deerskin side panels, and a bark-string net, which pulled tight around the foot.[3] However, tanned leather, the material most commonly used for making shoes, does not normally last for thousands of years, so shoes were probably in use long before this. Physical anthropologist Erik Trinkaus believes he has found evidence that the use of shoes began in the period between about 40,000 and 26,000 years ago, based on the fact that the thickness of the bones of the toes (other than the big toe) decreased during this period, on the premise that wearing shoes resulted in less bone growth, resulting in shorter, thinner toes.[5][6] The earliest designs were simple affairs, often mere "foot bags" of leather to protect the feet from rocks, debris, and cold. Since shoes use more leather than sandals, their use was more common in cold climates. By the Middle Ages, turn-shoes had been developed with toggled flaps or drawstrings to tighten the leather around the foot for a better fit. As Europe gained in wealth and power, fancy shoes became status symbols. Toes became long and pointed, often to ridiculous proportions. Artisans created unique footwear for rich patrons, and new styles developed. Eventually the modern shoe, with a sewn-on sole, was devised. Since the 17th century, most leather shoes have used a sewn-on sole. This remains the standard for finer-quality dress shoes today. Until around 1800, shoes were made without differentiation for the left or right foot. Such shoes are now referred to as "straights". Only gradually did the modern foot-specific shoe become standard.

Since the mid-20th Century, advances in rubber, plastics, synthetic cloth, and industrial adhesives have allowed manufacturers to create shoes that stray considerably from traditional crafting techniques. Leather, which had been the primary material in earlier styles, has remained standard in expensive dress shoes, but athletic shoes often have little or no real leather. Soles, which were once laboriously hand-stitched on, are now more often machine stitched or simply glued on.

Parts

Sole

The bottom of a shoe, the part that is intended to come in repeated contact with the ground, is called the sole. Soles have been made from plant fibers, leather, wood, rubber, synthetics, plastic, and various combinations of these materials. Soles can be simple, a single material in a single layer, or they can be complex with multiple structures or layers and materials.

Insole

The insole is the interior bottom of a shoe, which sits directly beneath the foot under the footbed (also known as sock liner). The purpose of insole is to attach to the lasting margin of the upper, which is wrapped around the last during the closing of the shoe during the lasting operation. Insoles are usually made of cellulosic paper board or synthetic non woven insole board. Many shoes have removable and replaceable footbeds. Extra cushioning is often added for comfort (to control the shape, moisture, or smell of the shoe) or health reasons (to help deal with defects in the natural shape of the foot or positioning of the foot during standing or walking). Basically, this is a main part of shoes which can absorb foot sweat. Footbeds should typically use foam cushioning sheets like latex and EVA, which provide good wearing comfort of the shoe.

Outsole

The outsole is the layer in direct contact with the ground. Dress shoes often have leather or resin rubber outsoles; casual or work-oriented shoes have outsoles made of natural rubber or a synthetic material like Polyurethane. The outsole may comprise a single piece, or may be an assembly of separate pieces of different materials. Often the heel of the sole has a rubber plate for durability and traction, while the front is leather for style. Specialized shoes will often have modifications on this design: athletic or so called cleated shoes like soccer, rugby, baseball and golf shoes have spikes embedded in the outsole to grip the ground.

Midsole

The layer in between the outsole and the insole that is typically there for shock absorption. Some types of shoes, like running shoes, have another material for shock absorption, usually beneath the heel of the foot, where one puts the most pressure down. Different companies use different materials for the midsoles of their shoes. Some shoes may not have a midsole at all.

Heel

The bottom rear part of a shoe is the heel. Its function is to support the heel of the foot. They are often made of the same material as the sole of the shoe. This part can be high for fashion or to make the person look taller, or flat for a more practical and comfortable use.

Vamp/upper

Every shoe has an upper part that helps hold the shoe onto the foot. In the simplest cases, such as sandals or flip-flops, this may be nothing more than a few straps for holding the sole in place. Closed footwear, such as boots, trainers and most men's shoes, will have a more complex upper. This part is often decorated or is made in a certain style to look attractive.

Lateral/medial

The outside part of the shoe is referred to as the lateral and the inside facing part of the shoe is the medial. This can be in reference to either the outsole or the vamp.

Welt

A welt is a strip of leather, rubber, or plastic that is stitched to the upper and insole of a shoe, as an attach-point for the sole.

Accessories

Types

Dress and casual

Dress shoes are characterized by smooth and supple leather uppers, leather soles, and narrow sleek figure. Casual shoes are characterized by sturdy leather uppers, non-leather outsoles, and wide profile.

Some designs of dress shoes can be worn by either gender. The majority of dress shoes have an upper covering, commonly made of leather, enclosing most of the lower foot, but not covering the ankles. This upper part of the shoe is often made without apertures or openings, but may also be made with openings or even itself consist of a series of straps, e.g. an open toe featured in women's shoes. Shoes with uppers made high to cover the ankles are also available; a shoe with the upper rising above the ankle is usually considered a boot but certain styles may be referred to as high-topped shoes or high-tops. Usually, a high-topped shoe is secured by laces or zippers, although some styles have elastic inserts to ease slipping the shoe on.

Men's

Men's shoes can be categorized by how they are closed:

Men's shoes can also be decorated in various ways:

Formal high-end men's shoes are manufactured by several companies around the world, most notably in England, France, Italy, and America. Notable British brands include: Church's English Shoes (est. 1873), John Lobb Bootmaker (est. 1849), Edward Green Shoes (est. 1890), and Crockett & Jones (est. 1879). Both John Lobb and Edward Green offer bespoke products. In between the world wars, men's footware received significant innovation and design, led by cobblers and cordwainers in London's West End.[7] The most notable French product is made by J.M. Weston. Armani of Italy was a major influence on men's shoe design in the 1960s-1980s until they returned to the larger proportions of its forebears, the welt-constructed Anglo-American dress shoe originally created in Edwardian England. Another well-known Italian company is Salvatore Ferragamo Italia S.p.A.. The remaining elite American companies are Allen Edmonds and Alden Shoe Company. Alden, located in New England, specializes in genuine shell cordovan leather from the only remaining horse tannery in America (Chicago)[8] and is completely manufactured in America, whereas Allen Edmonds, of Wisconsin, is a larger company that outsources some of its production.[9]

Women's

There is a large variety of shoes available for women, in addition to most of the men's styles being more accepted as unisex. Some broad categories are:

Unisex

Athletic

Men's and women's athletic shoes and special function shoes often have less difference between the sexes than in dress shoes. In many cases these shoes can be worn by either sex. Emphasis tends to be more on function than style.

Orthopedic

Orthopedic or "comfort" shoes are made with pedorthic and anatomically-correct comfort qualities, such as padded removable footbeds, wide toe boxes and arch support are made especially for those with problematic feet.

Dance

Work

Work shoes are designed to stand heavy wear, to protect the wearer, and provide high traction. They are generally made from sturdy leather uppers and non-leather outsoles. Sometimes they are used for uniforms or comfort by nurses, waitresses, police, military personnel, etc. They are commonly used for protection in industrial settings, construction, mining, and other workplaces. Protective features may include steel-tipped toes and soles or ankle guards.

Minimalist

Minimalist shoes are shoes that are minimal in design so that the advantages of walking/running barefoot are incorporated, yet without dropping additional protection of the foot from sharp objects. Minimalist shoes include: Vibram FiveFingers, MBT, Nike Free

Historical

Shoes of the past include:

Collection

Athletic sneaker collection has existed as a part of urban subculture in the United States for several decades.[10] Recent decades have seen this trend spread to European nations such as the Czech Republic.[11] A Sneakerhead is a person who owns multiple pairs of shoes as a form of collection and fashion. A contributor to the growth of sneaker collecting is the continued worldwide popularity of the Air Jordan line of sneakers designed by Nike for Basketball star Michael Jordan.

Maintenance

Someone who makes or repairs shoes in a shop is called a cobbler.

Biodegradability

Due to the appearance of new man-made materials, shoes have become increasingly less biodegradable. Currently, mass-produced shoes generally require 1000 years to degrade, and/or may not degrade at all, depending on the types of material employed in the production of the shoe. Recently some shoemakers have picked up on the issue and are beginning to produce shoes made entirely from degradable materials, such as Nike Considered.[13][14]

Etiquette

In the Middle East, parts of Africa, Korea and Thailand, it is considered rude to show the soles of the feet to others (even accidentally, such as by crossing the legs). Shoe throwing is a great insult in some areas in the Middle East and in India.[15] In addition, in Thailand, it is an extreme insult for the foot, socks, or shoes to touch someone's head or be placed over it.

In literature

Shoes play an important role in the fairy tales Cinderella, The Wonderful Wizard of Oz and The Red Shoes. In literature and film, an empty shoe or a pair of shoes signifies death.

Sizes

Companies

See the category shoe companies for a list of shoe companies.

See also

References

  1. ^ Fort Rock Sandals
  2. ^ "World's oldest leather shoe found in Armenia". Reuters. June 10, 2010. http://www.nationalpost.com/todays-paper/World+oldest+leather+shoe+found+Armenia/3136011/story.html. Retrieved June 13, 2010. 
  3. ^ a b Ravilious, Kate (June 9, 2010). "World's Oldest Leather Shoe Found—Stunningly Preserved". National Geographic. http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2010/06/100609-worlds-oldest-leather-shoe-armenia-science/. Retrieved June 13, 2010. 
  4. ^ Petraglia, Michael D.; Pinhasi R, Gasparian B, Areshian G, Zardaryan D, Smith A et al. (2010). Petraglia, Michael D.. ed. "First Direct Evidence of Chalcolithic Footwear from the Near Eastern Highlands". PLoS ONE 5 (6): e10984. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0010984. PMC 2882957. PMID 20543959. http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0010984.  Reported in (among others) Belluck, Pam (9 June 2010). "This Shoe Had Prada Beat by 5,500 Years". New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/10/science/10shoe.html. Retrieved 11 June 2010. 
  5. ^ BBC.co.uk
  6. ^ Trinkaus E,Shang H. (2008). Anatomical evidence for the antiquity of human footwear: Tianyuan and Sunghir. Journal of Archaeological Science 35 (2008) 1928-1933. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2007.12.002
  7. ^ Flusser, Alan. "Dressing the Man" Harper Collins, 2002, pg 189.
  8. ^ http://blog.leffot.com/2008/08/16/shannon-in-cordovan/
  9. ^ http://www.askandyaboutclothes.com/Tutorials/JCuseyOnShoes.htm
  10. ^ Skidmore, Sarah (15 January 2007). "Sneakerheads Love to Show Off Their Shoes". The Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/01/14/AR2007011400451.html. Retrieved 2 July 2011. 
  11. ^ "Czech 'Sneakerheads' Flaunt Their Best Trainers". Czech Position. http://www.ceskapozice.cz/en/news/society/czech-%E2%80%98sneakerheads%E2%80%99-flaunt-their-best-trainers. Retrieved 2 July 2011. 
  12. ^ Sterishoe.com, Accepted by the American Podiatric Medical Association
  13. ^ Brooks BioMoGo running shoe
  14. ^ Simple Shoes Bio-D
  15. ^ Hartford Courant

Further reading

External links