Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-25

MiG-25
MiG-25PU two-seat trainer
Role Interceptor and reconnaissance aircraft
Manufacturer Mikoyan-Gurevich OKB
First flight 6 March 1964
Introduction 1970
Status Limited active service
Primary users Russian Air Force
Algerian Air Force
Syrian Air Force
Military of Turkmenistan
Number built 1,186,[1] or 1,190[2]
Developed into Mikoyan MiG-31

The Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-25 (Russian: Микоян и Гуревич МиГ-25) (NATO reporting name: Foxbat) is a supersonic interceptor and reconnaissance aircraft that was among the fastest military aircraft to enter service. Designed by the Soviet Union's Mikoyan-Gurevich bureau the first prototype flew in 1964 with entry into service in 1970. It has a top speed of Mach 2.83+ (as high as Mach 3.2, but at risk of significant damage to the engines), and features a powerful radar and four air-to-air missiles.

When first seen in reconnaissance photography, the large wing planform suggested an enormous and highly maneuverable fighter. This was during a period of time when U.S. design theories were also evolving towards higher maneuverability due to combat performance in the Vietnam War. The appearance of the MiG-25 sparked off serious concern in the west, and prompted dramatic increases in performance for the McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle in late 1960s. The capabilities of the MiG-25 were better understood in 1976 when Soviet pilot Viktor Belenko defected in a MiG-25 to the United States via Japan. The large wing turned out to be due to the aircraft's very heavy weight.

Production of the MiG-25 series ended in 1984 after completion of 1,190 aircraft. A symbol of the Cold War, the MiG-25 flew with a number of Soviet allies and former Soviet republics, remaining in limited service in Russia and several other nations. It remains the fastest combat aircraft ever produced.[3]

Contents

Design and development

Background

During the Cold War, Soviet Air Defence Forces, PVO (not to be confused with Soviet Air Force, VVS) was tasked with the strategic air defense of the USSR. In the decades after World War II, this meant not only to deal with accidental border violations, but more importantly to defend the vast airspace of the USSR against US reconnaissance aircraft and strategic bombers carrying free-fall nuclear bombs. The performance of these types of aircraft was steadily improved. Overflights by the very high altitude American Lockheed U-2 in the late 1950s revealed a need for higher altitude interceptor aircraft than what was then available.[4]

The subsonic Boeing B-47 Stratojet and Boeing B-52 Stratofortress strategic bombers were followed by the Mach 2-capable Convair B-58 Hustler, with the even faster North American B-70 Valkyrie on the drawing board. A major upgrade in the PVO defence system was required, and at the start of 1958 a requirement was issued for manned interceptors capable of going 3,000 km/h and fly at heights up to 27 km (88,583 ft). Mikoyan and Sukhoi responded.[5]

The Mikoyan-Gurevich OKB had been working on a series of interceptors during the second half of the 1950s: the I-1, I-3U, I-7U, I-75, Ye-150, Ye-150A, Ye-152, Ye-152A, Ye-152P, and Ye-152M. The Ye-150 was noteworthy because it was built specifically to test the Tumansky R-15 engine, two of which would later be used for the MiG-25. This led to Ye-152, alternatively known as Ye-166, which set several world records.[6] The Ye-152M (converted from one of the two Ye-152 aircraft) was intended to be the definite heavy interceptor design. But before it was finished, the PVO had selected the Tupolev Tu-128. As the work on the MiG-25 was well under way, the single-engine Ye-152M was abandoned.

Designing a new interceptor

Work on the new Russian interceptor that would become the MiG-25 started in mid-1959,[7] a year before Soviet intelligence learned of the American Mach 3 A-12 reconnaissance aircraft.[8] It is not clear if the design was influenced by the American A-5 Vigilante.[7] Requirements could easily have led the design team to use a similar layout. The promise of the new design roused the military's interest in both VVS and PVO. In February 1961 the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union issued a joint directive with the Council of Ministers of the USSR, tasking the Mikoyan OKB with the development of an aircraft designated Ye-155, the interceptor and reconnaissance versions of which were designated Ye-155P (Perekhvatchik - radar-directed, all weather interceptor) and Ye-155R (Razvedchik-reconnaissance) respectively. On 10 March 1961, Mikoyan signed a formal order to start design work on the Ye-155.

The design bureau studied several possible layouts for the new aircraft. One had the engines located side-by-side, as on the MiG-19. The second had a stepped arrangement with one engine amidships, with exhaust under the fuselage, and another in the aft fuselage. The third project had an engine arrangement similar to that of the English Electric Lightning, with two engines stacked vertically. Option two and three were both rejected because the size of the engines meant any of them would result in a very tall aircraft which would complicate maintenance.[7]

The idea of placing the engines in underwing nacelles was also rejected because of the dangers of any thrust asymmetry during flight. Having decided on engine configuration, there was thought of giving the machine variable-sweep wings and a second crew member, a navigator. Variable geometry would improve maneuverability at subsonic speed, but at the cost of decreased fuel tank capacity. Because the reconnaissance aircraft would operate at high speed and high altitude the idea was soon dropped. Another interesting but impractical idea was to improve the field performance using two RD36-35 lift-jets. Vertical takeoff and landing would allow for use of damaged runways during wartime and was studied on both sides of the Iron Curtain. The problem has always been that engines dedicated to vertical lift do not contribute with any power in horizontal flight, and occupy space in the airframe needed for fuel. The MiG interceptor would need all the fuel it could get, so the idea was abandoned.[9]

A variety of other roles were considered for the aircraft, including cruise missile carrier, and even a small five to seven-passenger supersonic transport, but none of these notions bore any fruit, and only the main directive of a high-altitude reconnaissance aircraft for the VVS' Frontal Aviation and heavy interceptor for PVO was ever realized.

The first prototype was a reconnaissance variant, designated "Ye-155-R1", and made its first flight on 6 March 1964.[10] It had some characteristics that were unique to that prototype, and some of these were visually very evident: the wings had fixed wingtip tanks (600 litre capacity) to which small winglets were attached for stability purposes, but when it was found fuel sloshing around in the tanks caused vibrations they were eliminated. The aircraft also had attachments for movable foreplanes, canards, to help with pitch control at high speed (provisions for canards had previously been installed, but not used, on the Ye-152P.)[9][11]

The first flight of the interceptor prototype, "Ye-155-P1", took place on 9 September 1964.[12] Development of the MiG-25, which represented a major step forward in Soviet aerodynamics, engineering and metallurgy, took several more years to complete.[13][12]

On 9 July 1967, the new aircraft was first shown to the public at the Domodedovo air show, with four prototypes (three fighters and a reconnaissance aircraft) making a flypast.[14]

Record breaker

The Mikoyan-Gurevich design bureau soon realized that the performance of the new aircraft gave it great potential to set new flight records. In addition to their normal duties, the prototypes Ye-155-P1, Ye-155-R1, Ye-155-R3 were made lighter by removing some unneeded equipment, and were used for these attempts. Under Federation Aeronautique Internationale (FAI) classification the Ye-155 type belonged to class C1 (III), which specifies jet-powered land planes with unlimited maximum take-off weight. Records set included:

In all 29 records were claimed, of which seven were all-time world records for time to height, altitudes of 20,000 m and higher, and speed. Several records still stand.[7]

Technical description

Because of the thermal stresses incurred in flight above Mach 2, the Mikoyan-Gurevich OKB had difficulties choosing what materials to use for the aircraft. They had to use E-2 heat-resistant plexiglass for the canopy, and high-strength stainless steel for the wings and fuselage. Using titanium rather than steel would have been ideal, but it was expensive and difficult to work. The problem of cracks in welded titanium structures with thin walls could not be solved, so the heavier nickel steel was used instead. It cost far less than titanium and allowed for welding, along with heat resistant seals.[7] The MiG-25 was constructed from 80% nickel steel alloy, 11% aluminium, and 9% titanium.[17] The steel components were formed by a combination of spot-welding, automatic machine welding and hand arc welding methods.

The MiG-25 was theoretically capable of a maximum speed of Mach 3+ and a ceiling of 90,000 ft (27,000 m). Its high speed was problematic: although sufficient thrust was available to reach Mach 3.2, a limit of Mach 2.8 had to be imposed as the turbines tended to overspeed and overheat at higher speeds, possibly damaging them beyond repair.[18][19][20][21]

Into production

Full scale production of the MiG-25R ('Foxbat-B') began in 1969 at the Gorkii aircraft factory (Plant No.21). The MiG-25P ("Foxbat-A") followed in 1971, and 460 of this variant was built until production ended in 1982. The improved PD variant that replaced it was built from 1978 till 1984 with 104 aircraft completed.[7] But from then on the Gorkii factory switched over production to the new MiG-31.

A non-combat trainer variant ("Foxbat-C") was also developed for each version, the MiG-25PU and MiG-25RU, respectively. The MiG-25R evolved several subsequent derivatives, including the MiG-25RB reconnaissance-bomber, the MiG-25RBS ("Foxbat-D") with side-looking airborne radar (SLAR), the MiG-25RBK ELINT aircraft, and the MiG-25BM ("Foxbat-F") SEAD variant, carrying four Raduga Kh-58 (NATO reporting name AS-11 'Kilter') anti-radiation missiles. The BM variant was introduced late into service, in 1988.

Western intelligence and the MiG-25

Inaccurate intelligence analysis caused the West initially to believe the MiG-25 was an agile air-combat fighter rather than an interceptor. In response, the United States started a new program which resulted in the McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle.[22] NATO obtained a better understanding of the MiG-25's capabilities on 6 September 1976, when a Soviet Air Defence Forces pilot, Lt. Viktor Belenko, defected, landing his MiG-25P at Hakodate Airport in Japan.[23]

The pilot overshot the runway on landing, damaging the landing gear and making the MiG-25 un-airworthy. It was carefully dismantled and analyzed by the Foreign Technology Division (now the National Air and Space Intelligence Center) of the United States Air Force, at the Wright-Patterson Air Force Base. After 67 days, the aircraft was returned to the Soviets in pieces. The analysis, based on technical manuals and ground tests of engines and avionics, revealed unusual technical information:

Later versions

As the result of Belenko's defection and the compromise of the MiG-25P's radar and missile systems, beginning in 1976, the Soviets started to develop an advanced version, the MiG-25PD ("Foxbat-E").[7] This upgrade consisted of new RP-25 Sapfir (Sapphire) look-down/shoot-down radar (the same radar as used in the MiG-23 fighter), infrared search and track (IRST) system, other electronic improvements and more powerful R15B-300 engines. About 370 earlier MiG-25Ps were converted to this standard and redesignated MiG-25PDS.

Plans for a new aircraft to develop the Foxbat's potential to go faster than the in-service limit of Mach 2.8 were designed as a flying prototype. Unofficially designated MiG-25M, it had new powerful engines R15BF2-300, improved radar, and missiles. This work never resulted in a machine for series production, as the coming MiG-31 showed more promise.[7]

Operational history

Over Israel and Iran

The unarmed 'B' version had greater impact than the interceptor when the USSR sent two MiG-25R, and two MiG-25RB to Egypt in March 1971 and stayed until July 1972. They were operated by the Soviet 63rd Independent Air Detachment (Det 63) set up specially for this mission. Det 63 flew over Israeli held territory in Sinai on reconnaissance missions roughly 20 times. The flights were in pairs at maximum speed and high altitude (between 17,000–23,000 m).[7]

On 6 November 1971, an Egyptian MiG-25 flying at Mach 2.5 was met by Israeli F-4Es and fired upon unsuccessfully.[19][27] A MiG-25 was tracked flying over Sinai at Mach 3.2 during this period. The MiG-25 engines went into overspeed, which led to their later destruction.[8] Unit Det 63 was sent back home in 1972, though reconnaissance Foxbats were sent back to Egypt in 19–20 October 1973 during the Yom Kippur War.[27] Unit Det 154 remained there until late 1974.

On 13 February 1981, Israeli Air Force sent two RF-4Es over Lebanon as a decoy for Syrian MiG-25 interceptors. As the MiGs scrambled, the RF-4Es turned back delivering chaffs and using ECM pods. Two IDF/AF F-15A were waiting for the MiGs and shot one of them down with AIM-7F missiles. The other MiG was able to escape. The trap was repeated on 29 July 1981 and 7 June 1982, when another two Syrian MiG-25s were downed by IDF/AF F-15As, one on each date. Finally, on 31 August 1983, a fourth Syrian MiG-25 was damaged by a Israeli Hawk SAM and then dispatched by an IDF/AF F-15.[28] No Israeli aircraft were lost to the MiG-25.

During the 1970s, the Soviet air force conducted reconnaissance overflights across Iran using its MiG-25RBSh aircraft in response to joint US-Iran recon operations.[29]

Iran-Iraq War

The MiG-25 was in service with the Iraqi Air Force during the Iran–Iraq War, but its success against Iranian fighters is largely unknown. Research by journalist Tom Cooper shows that as many as 14 MIG-25s may have been shot down by Iranian fighters during the period from 1978 to 1988,[30][31][32] although it is difficult to determine the validity of these claims. Iraqi MiG-25s made their first kill against Iran in February 1983, where an Iraqi MiG-25PD shot down an Iranian C-130. On 21 March 1984, an Iraqi MiG-25PD shot down an Iranian F-4E and on 5 June 1985 an Iraqi MiG-25PD shot down a second Iranian F-4E. On 23 February 1986 an Iraqi MiG-25PD shot down an Iranian EC-130E and on 10 June an RF-4E, later in October 1986, an Iraqi MiG-25PDS shot down a second RF-4E.[33] The most successful Iraqi MiG-25 pilot of the war was Colonel Mohommed "Sky Falcon" Rayyan, who was credited with 10 kills. Eight of these were while flying the MiG-25P from 1981 to 1986.[34]

Persian Gulf War

During the Persian Gulf War, a US Navy F/A-18, piloted by Lt Cdr Scott Speicher, was shot down on the first night of the war by a missile[35] probably fired by a MiG-25.[36] The kill was reportedly made with a Bisnovat R-40TD missile fired from a MiG-25PDS flown by Lt. Zuhair Dawood of the 84th squadron of the IrAF.[37]

In another incident, an Iraqi MiG-25PD, after eluding eight U.S. Air Force F-15s, fired three missiles at General Dynamics EF-111A Raven electronic warfare aircraft, forcing them to abort their mission and leave attacking aircraft without electronic jamming support.[N 1][38]

In yet another incident, two MiG-25s approached a pair of F-15s, fired missiles (which were evaded by the F-15s), and then outran the American fighters. Two more F-15s joined the pursuit, and a total of 10 air-to-air missiles were fired at the MiG-25s, although none reached them.[39] According to the same sources, at least one F-111 was also forced to abort its mission by a MiG-25 on the first 24 hours of hostilities, during an air raid over Tikrit.[40]

Two MiG-25s were shot down by USAF F-15Cs during the Gulf War, both using AIM-7s.[41][42] After the war, on 27 December 1992, a U.S. F-16D downed a MiG-25 that violated the no-fly zone in southern Iraq with an AMRAAM missile. It was the first USAF F-16 air to air victory and the first AMRAAM kill.[43]

On 23 December 2002, an Iraqi MiG-25 shot down a U.S. Air Force unmanned MQ-1 Predator drone, which was performing armed reconnaissance over Iraq. This was the first time in history that an aircraft and an unmanned drone had engaged in combat. Predators had been armed with AIM-92 Stinger air-to-air missiles, and were being used to "bait" Iraqi fighter aircraft, then run. In this incident, the Predator did not run, but instead fired one of the Stingers, which missed, while the MiG's missile did not.[44][45]

No Iraqi aircraft were deployed in the U.S. invasion of Iraq in 2003, with most Iraqi aircraft being hidden or destroyed on the ground. In August 2003, several dozen Iraqi aircraft were discovered buried in the sand.

India

The MiG-25 was kept a guarded secret in India, and was nicknamed Garuda, after the large mythical bird-like creature from Hindu and Buddhist mythology.[46] It was used extensively in the Kargil War and Operation Parakram, conducting aerial reconnaissance sorties of Pakistan.[N 2][47]

In May 1997, an Indian Air Force Mikoyan MiG-25RB reconnaissance aircraft created a furor when the pilot flew faster than Mach 2 over Pakistani territory following a reconnaissance mission into Pakistan airspace. The MiG-25 broke the sound barrier while flying at an altitude of around 65,000 feet, otherwise the mission would have remained covert, at least to the general public. The Pakistan Government considered the breaking of the sound barrier was deliberate to make the point that the Pakistan Air Force (PAF) had no aircraft in its inventory which can come close to the MiG-25's cruising height (up to 74,000 feet). India denied the incident but Pakistan's Foreign Minister, Gohar Ayub Khan, believed that the Foxbat photographed strategic installations near the capital, Islamabad.[48]

Lack of spare parts and India's acquiring of unmanned aerial vehicles and satellite imagery eventually led to its retirement in 2006.[N 3][46][47]

Variants

Prototypes

Ye-155R
Reconnaissance prototypes. Two prototypes (Ye-155R-1 and Ye-155R-2) followed by four pre-production aircraft fitted with reconnaissance equipment.[49]
Ye-155P
Interceptor fighter prototypes. Two prototypes (Ye-155P-1 and Ye-155P02) followed by nine pre-production aircraft.[50]
Ye-266
Designation applied to prototypes and pre-production aircraft (Ye-155R-1, Ye-155R-3 and Ye-155P-1) used for record breaking purposes in official documentation supplied to the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale.[51]

Interceptors

MiG-25P
Single-seat all-weather interceptor fighter aircraft, powered by two Tumansky R-15B-300 turbojet engines, fitted with RP-25 Smerch-A1 radar and armed with four R-40 air-to-air missiles. NATO designation Foxbat-A.[52]
MiG-25PD
Improved single-seat all-weather interceptor fighter aircraft, which entered service from 1979. Fitted with R-15BD-300 engines and new N-005 Saphir-25 (RP-25M) Pulse-Doppler radar with look-down/shoot down capability, based on the radar of the MiG-23ML. Could be fitted with four R-60 air-to-air missiles replacing outermost two R-40 missiles. Late examples fitted with an undernose IR search and track system. NATO designation Foxbat-E.[53]
MiG-25PDS
Upgrade of surviving MiG-25Ps to MiG-25PD standard from 1979. NATO designation Foxbat-E.[54]
MiG-25PDSL
Single MiG-25PD modified by addition of electronic countermeasures (ECM) equipment.[54]
MiG-25PDZ
Single MiG-25PD modified with retractable in-flight refuelling probe.[54]
MiG-25M
Two testbeds (one converted from a MiG-25RB and one from a MiG-25PD) for more powerful (98.04 kN (22,045 lbf) dry, 129.71 kN (29,166 lbf) with afterburner) engines.[55]
Ye-266M
Designation applied to MiG-25M when used for record breaking in 1975 and 1977, including setting an absolute altitude record of 37,650 m (123,524 ft) on 31 August 1977.[55]
Izdelye 99
Two aircraft used as testbeds for Soloviev D-30F turbofan as later used in MiG-31.[53]

Reconnaissance and strike versions

MiG-25R
Single-seat high-altitude daylight reconnaissance aircraft, fitted with cameras, and ELINT equipment. NATO codename Foxbat-B.[56]
MiG-25RB
Single-seat reconnaissance-bomber derivative of MiG-25R, fitted with improved reconnaissance systems and a Peleng automatic bombing system. The aircraft can carry a bombload of eight 500 kg (1,102 lb) bombs. Entered service in 1970. NATO codename Foxbat-B.[56]
MiG-25RBV
Modernised single-seat reconnaissance-bomber with revised Elint equipment (SRS-9 Vraz). NATO codename Foxbat-B.[57]
MiG-25RBT
Further improved reconnaissance-bomber, with Tangaz Elint equipment. NATO codename Foxbat-B.[58]
MiG-25RBN
Dedicated night reconnaissance aircraft, carrying 10 photoflash bombs under the fuselage. Only single prototype built. NATO codename Foxbat-B.[58]
MiG-25RR
Conversion of eight reconnaissance aircraft for high-altitude radiation sampling role. Used to monitor Chinese nuclear tests between 1970 and 1980. NATO codename Foxbat-B.[58]
MiG-25RBK
Single-seat dedicated Elint aircraft, with Kub-3K Elint system. Bombing capability retained but cameras not fitted. NATO codename Foxbat-D.[58]
MiG-25RBF
Conversion of MiG-25RBK with new Shar-25 Elint equipment. NATO codename Foxbat-D.[59]
MiG-25RBS
Single-seat radar-reconnaissance aircraft, with Sabla-E side looking airborne radar (SLAR). Cameras not fitted but bombing capability retained. NATO codename Foxbat-D.[59]
MiG-25RBSh
MiG-25RBS fitted with more capable Shompol SLAR. NATO codename Foxbat-D.[59]
MiG-25BM "Foxbat-F"
Single-seat defence-suppression aircraft, armed with Kh-58 or Kh-31 air-to-surface missiles.[60]

Conversion trainers

MiG-25PU
Two-seat conversion trainer for MiG-25P interceptors. Fitted with a new nose section with two separate cockpits. It has no radar and no combat capability. NATO codename Foxbat-C.[55]
MiG-25RU
Two-seat conversion trainer for reconnaissance versions. Fitted with MiG-25R navigation system. NATO codename Foxbat-C.[59]
Ye-133
Designation given to single MiG-25PU used by Svetlana Savitskaya to establish a number of women's speed and height records, starting with speed over a 15–25 km course of 2,683.45 km/h (1.667.47 mph) on 22 June 1975.[55][61]

Operators

Current operators

 Algeria
 Armenia
 Azerbaijan
 Kazakhstan
 Russia
 Syria
 Turkmenistan

Former operators

 Bulgaria
 Belarus
 India
 Iraq
 Georgia
 Libya
 Soviet Union – The largest operator historically, Soviet aircraft were passed on to its successor states in 1991.
 Ukraine

Survivors

Specifications (MiG-25P 'Foxbat-A')

Data from The Great Book of Fighters,[67] International Directory of Military Aircraft[68]Combat Aircraft since 1945 [1]

General characteristics

Performance

Armament

Avionics

See also

Related development
Aircraft of comparable role, configuration and era

Related lists

References

Notes
  1. ^ Quote: "But as the Ravens began their second orbit in a counterclockwise turn toward the Syrian border (over Al-Qaim), a MiG-25 suddenly darted toward them at high speed. The Iraqi fired one air-to-air missile at the lead Raven and two at his wingman. The missiles flew wide, but the Ravens dived to escape and then, uncertain where the MiG was lurking, turned back to Saudi Arabia."
  2. ^ Quote: "The MIG 25 was extensively used in the Kargil conflict in 1999 and also during Operation Parakram 2001."
  3. ^ Quote: "UAVs and Satellite Imagery have made these aircraft obsolete to an extent, however these are still useful for strategic reconnaissance. Spares are a major problem as per Air Marshal A K Singh, C in C Western Air Command."
Citations
  1. ^ a b Wilson 2000, p. 103.
  2. ^ "Aircraft Museum: MiG-25 'Foxbat'." Aerospaceweb.org. Retrieved: 5 September 2010.
  3. ^ "Global Aircraft – Top 50 Fastest Aircraft." The Global Aircraft Organization, 24 April 2007. Retrieved: 30 June 2011.
  4. ^ Rich and Janos 1994, p. 15.
  5. ^ Gordon and Gunston 2000, p. 166.
  6. ^ Gordon and Gunston 2000, p. 106.
  7. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t Gordon 2008
  8. ^ a b c d Spick 2000
  9. ^ a b Lake 1998, p. 108.
  10. ^ Belyakov and Marmain 1994, p. 398.
  11. ^ Belyakov and Marmain 1994, pp. 272–274.
  12. ^ a b c d Belyakov and Marmain 1994, p. 391.
  13. ^ Belyakov and Marmain 1994, pp. 387–388.
  14. ^ Lake 1998, p. 109.
  15. ^ a b c d Belyakov and Marmain 1994, p. 392.
  16. ^ Belyakov and Marmain 1994, pp. 406–407.
  17. ^ Eden 2004, p. 308.
  18. ^ "Intelligence: Big-Mouth Belenko." Time, 11 October 1976. Retrieved: 12 May 2010.
  19. ^ a b Goebel, Greg. "MiG-25." vectorsite.net. Retrieved: 5 September 2010.
  20. ^ "Mikoyan MiG-25 Foxbat." aeroweb.lucia.it. Retrieved: 5 September 2010.
  21. ^ Gunston and Spick pp. 132–133.
  22. ^ Jenkins 1998, pp. 6–7.
  23. ^ a b Barron 1980, p. 15.
  24. ^ a b Barron 1980, pp. 169–171.
  25. ^ "MiG-25." globalaircraft.org. Retrieved: 5 September 2010.
  26. ^ Broad, William J. "Nuclear Pulse (I): Awakening to the Chaos Factor." Science, Volume 212, 29 May 1981, pp. 1009–1012.
  27. ^ a b "Foxbats over Sinai." spyflight.co.uk. Retrieved: 5 September 2010.
  28. ^ "MiG-25 Foxbat." spyflight.co. Retrieved: 26 July 2011.
  29. ^ http://www.spyflight.co.uk/darkgene.htm
  30. ^ "Iranian Air-to-Air Victories 1982-today." acig.org, 19 May 2006.
  31. ^ "Iranian Air-to-Air Victories 1976-1981." acig.org, 19 May 2006.
  32. ^ Cooper and Bishop 2004
  33. ^ Mevlutoglu, Arda. "Airshow Turkiye 2011." ACIG, 11 June 2011. Retrieved; 30 June 2011.
  34. ^ Nicolle and Cooper 2004, pp. 82, 86.
  35. ^ "Intelligence Community Assessment of the Lieutenant Commander Speicher Case". CIA, FOIA Electronic Reading Room, 27 March 2001. Retrieved: 10 September 2006.
  36. ^ Weiner, Tim. "With Iraq's O.K., a U.S. Team Seeks War Pilot's Body." The New York Times, 14 December 1995, p. A1.
  37. ^ Sadik, A. and D. Zampini. "Tretij Den' (i posledujuschie...)" ["The Third Day (and beyond...)."] Aviacija i vremja (Aviation and Time), No. 6, 2005.
  38. ^ Atkinson 1993, pp. 125–126.
  39. ^ Atkinson 1993, pp. 230–231.
  40. ^ Atkinson 1993, p. 75.
  41. ^ http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OZ5N58z9UUM
  42. ^ http://www.rjlee.org/air/ds-aakill/
  43. ^ http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UrYcxXIg5fI&NR=1
  44. ^ Krane, Jim. "Pilotless Warriors Soar To Success." CBS News, 25 April 2003.
  45. ^ "Video of Shoot-Down." CBS. Retrieved: 5 September 2010.
  46. ^ a b c "India retires Cold War spy MiGs." BBC News. 9 April 2006. Retrieved: 30 June 2011.
  47. ^ a b Bhonsle 2006, p. 256.
  48. ^ Steinemann, Peter. "VayuSena: Recce Incursion." Air Power International. Retrieved: 5 September 2010.
  49. ^ Lake 1998, pp. 108–109.
  50. ^ Lake 1998, pp. 109–110.
  51. ^ Lake 1998, p. 110.
  52. ^ Lake 1998, pp. 110–111.
  53. ^ a b Lake 1998, p. 112.
  54. ^ a b c Lake 1998, p. 113.
  55. ^ a b c d Lake 1998, p. 114.
  56. ^ a b Lake 1998, p. 115.
  57. ^ Lake 1998, p. 116.
  58. ^ a b c d Lake 1998, p. 117.
  59. ^ a b c d Lake 1998, p. 118.
  60. ^ Gunston and Spick 1983, pp. 132–133.
  61. ^ Belyakov and Marmain 1994, p. 404.
  62. ^ a b "World Military Aircraft Inventory". 2010 Aerospace, Aviation Week and Space Technology, January 2010.
  63. ^ a b c d e "Directory: World Air Forces." Flight International, 11–17 November 2008.
  64. ^ "Iraqi Perspectives Project Phase II. Um Al-Ma'arik (The Mother of All Battles): Operational and Strategic Insights from an Iraqi Perspective, Volume 1 (Revised May 2008)." Institute for Defense Analysis, May 2008.
  65. ^ "Iraqi Air Force Equipment - Introduction." globalsecurity.org. Retrieved: 26 July 2011.
  66. ^ "MiG-25 fact sheet." nationalmuseum.af.mil. Retrieved: 27 October 2010.
  67. ^ Green and Swanborough 2001
  68. ^ a b Frawley 2002, p. 123.
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External links

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