| Luxembourgish | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Lëtzebuergesch | ||||
| Pronunciation | [ˈlœt͡səbuɐ̯jəʃ] | |||
| Spoken in | Luxembourg, Belgium, France, Germany | |||
| Region | Europe | |||
| Native speakers | 320,000 (1998) | |||
| Language family | ||||
| Official status | ||||
| Official language in |
European Union Luxembourg |
|||
| Regulated by | Conseil Permanent de la Langue Luxembourgeoise (CPLL) | |||
| Language codes | ||||
| ISO 639-1 | lb | |||
| ISO 639-2 | ltz | |||
| ISO 639-3 | ltz | |||
|
Area where Luxembourgisch (hatched) and related Moselle Franconian is spoken.
|
||||
|
||||
Luxembourgish (Lëtzebuergesch; French: Luxembourgeois, German: Luxemburgisch, Dutch: Luxemburgs, Walloon: Lussimbordjwès) is a High German language spoken mainly in Luxembourg. About 320,000[1] people worldwide speak Luxembourgish.
Contents |
Luxembourgish belongs to the West Central German group of High German languages and is the primary example of a Moselle Franconian language.
Luxembourgish is the national language of Luxembourg and one of three administrative languages (along with French and Standard German).[2]
Luxembourgish is also spoken in the Arelerland of Belgium, in the (Province of Luxembourg), France (in small parts of Lorraine).
In the German Eifel and Hunsrück regions and in Lorraine similar local Moselle Franconian dialects of German are spoken. Furthermore, the language is spoken by a few descendants of Luxembourg immigrants in the United States, and another similar Moselle Franconian dialect is spoken by ethnic Germans long settled in Transylvania, Romania (Siebenbürgen).
Moselle Franconian dialects outside the Luxembourg state border tend to have far fewer French loan words, and these mostly remain from the French occupation under Napoléon Bonaparte.
There are several distinct dialect forms of Luxembourgish including Areler (from Arlon), Eechternoacher (Echternach), Kliärrwer (Clervaux), Miseler (Moselle), Stater (Luxembourg), Veiner (Vianden), Minetter (Southern Luxembourg) and Weelzer (Wiltz). Further small vocabulary differences may be seen even between small villages.
Increasing mobility of the population and the dissemination of the language through mass media such as radio and television are leading to a gradual standardisation towards a "Standard Luxembourgish" through the process of koineization.
There is no distinct geographic boundary between the use of Luxembourgish and the use of other closely related High German dialects (for example Lorraine Franconian); it instead forms a dialect continuum of gradual change.
Spoken Luxembourgish is relatively hard to understand for speakers of German who are generally not familiar with Moselle Franconian dialects, though they can usually read the language. For those Germans familiar with Moselle Franconian dialects, it is relatively easy to understand Luxembourgish, but more difficult to speak it properly because of the French influence. Even literary German, as it is written in Luxembourg, tends to include many French words and phrases.
There is limited intelligibility between Luxembourgish and French or any of the Romance dialects spoken in the adjacent parts of Belgium and France.
Erna Hennicot-Schoepges, President of the Christian Social People's Party of Luxembourg 1995-2003, was active in promoting the language beyond Luxembourg's borders.
A number of proposals for standardising the orthography of Luxembourgish can be documented, going back to the middle of the 19th century. There was no officially recognised system, however, until the adoption of the "OLO" (ofizjel lezebuurjer ortografi) on 5 June 1946.[3] This orthography provided a system for speakers of all varieties of Luxembourgish to transcribe words the way they pronounced them, rather than imposing a single, standard spelling for the words of the language. The rules explicitly rejected certain elements of German orthography (e.g., the use of "ä" and "ö",[4] the capitalisation of nouns). Similarly, new principles were adopted for the spelling of French loanwords.
This proposed orthography, so different from existing "foreign" standards that people were already familiar with, did not enjoy widespread approval.
A more successful standard eventually emerged from the work of the committee of specialists charged with the task of creating the Luxemburger Wörterbuch, published in 5 volumes between 1950 and 1977. The orthographic conventions adopted in this decades-long project, set out in Bruch (1955), provided the basis of the standard orthography that became official on 10 October 1975.[5] Modifications to this standard were proposed by the Conseil permanent de la langue luxembourgeoise and adopted officially in the spelling reform of 30 July 1999.[6] A detailed explanation of current practice for Luxembourgish can be found in Schanen & Lulling (2003).
The Luxembourgish alphabet consists of the 26 Latin letters plus three modified letters: "é", "ä", and "ë". In loanwords from French and High German, other diacritics are usually preserved:
A striking phonological process in Luxembourgish causes the deletion of final [n] in certain contexts. This phenomenon was originally documented in the late 19th century for the dialect of the Eifel region, hence the name Eifeler Regel (Eifel Rule).[7]
Since Luxembourgish orthography strives for phonetic accuracy, this deletion of n is also reflected in writing. Nowadays the Eifeler Regel is presented as a spelling rule, but its correct application still depends on a knowledge of spoken Luxembourgish. The rule targets words ending in -n or -nn, and since this is an extremely common ending for verbs, plural nouns, and function words (e.g. articles, pronouns, prepositions) in Luxembourgish, its effects are widespread. The basic rule can be described as follows (see Schanen & Lulling 2003):
It is important to know that many words ending in -n or -nn are not affected by the Eifeler Regel:
In fact, n as a stem consonant (as opposed to part of a grammatical ending) is generally stable in content words, with notable exceptions such as Wäi(n) (wine), Stee(n) (stone), geschwë(nn) (soon).
When final -n is dropped from a plural noun whose singular form also ends in -e, a diaeresis must be used to distinguish the plural:
|
|
|
| Letter(s) and context | IPA and English language references |
|---|---|
| A | father (long) |
| Ä | ε = get (or longer) |
| ÄE/ÄER/ÄR | εə = bear (with an unpronounced R) |
| AI | aɪ = eye |
| ÄI | ε:ɪ = pay (with a long A) |
| AU | aʊ = cow |
| B (at beginning/middle of syllable) | b = ball |
| B (at the end of a syllable) | p = pay |
| C (not before E/I/Y) | k = key |
| C (before E/I/Y) | s = set |
| CH (before E/I) | ç = (voiceless variant of j, similar to ship) |
| CH (after A/AU/O/U) | x = (Scottish loch, Spanish hijo) |
| CH (at the beginning of a word, but not before E/I) | k = key |
| CHS | ks = fax |
| CK | k = key |
| D (at beginning/middle of syllable) | d = day |
| D (at the end of a syllable) | t = tea |
| E | ε = get (short) / ə = action (unstressed) / e = French été (long) |
| É/Ê | ε = get (short) |
| EEË | eə = (German Ehe) |
| ËEE | əe = (German geebnet) |
| EI | aɪ = eye |
| ÉI | εɪ = pay |
| ER (at end of a word with more than 1 syllable) | gangsta |
| F | f = fair |
| G (in general) | g = go |
| G (sometimes when preceding E or I) | ʒ = vision |
| G (at end of word) | ç/x = (pronounced like CH at the end of a word) |
| G (when preceding EG/EN/ER/ESCH) | j = yes |
| G (at the end of a syllable) | k = key |
| H (not behind a vowel) | h = house |
| H (behind a vowel) | (silent) |
| I | ɪ = hit (short) / i = meet (long) |
| IE/IER/IR | iə = beer (with an unpronounced R) |
| IG (at end of word, but not in compounds) | iç = (like Luxembourgish -ich) |
| IGT (at end of word) | içt = (like Luxembourgish -icht) |
| J | j/ʒ = yes / vision |
| K | k = key |
| L | l = love |
| M | m = moon |
| N | n = no |
| NG | ŋ = sing |
| NK | ŋk = bank |
| O | ɔ = hot (short), law (long) |
| Ö | ø = French euro (long, in German loan words) |
| OI | ɔɪ = boy |
| OU | oʊ = low |
| P | p = pay |
| PH | f = photo |
| QU | kw = quick (Q never occurs alone) |
| R (in general) | ʀ = rain (BUT—actually a uvular trill or voiced fricative) |
| R (behind a vowel and preceding a consonant) | gangsta |
| RH/RRH | ʀ = (pronounced like the letter R) |
| S (not at end of syllable) | z = zoo |
| S (at the end of a syllable) | s = see |
| SCH | ʃ = ship |
| SP (at beginning of word) | ʃp = fish-pond |
| ST (at beginning of word) | ʃt = fish-tank |
| T | t = tea |
| TH | t = tea |
| TI (in words of Latin origin if the I is unstressed and it comes before a vowel) | ʦj = suits-you |
| TZ | ʦ = nuts |
| U | ʊ = put (short) / u = fool (long) / y = French pure (long) |
| UE/UER/UR | uə = sure (with an unpronounced R) |
| V (in general) | f = fair |
| V (in foreign words) | v = vet |
| W | v = vet |
| X | ks = fax |
| Y (in general) | rounded variant of hit (short) / y = French pure (long) |
| Y (sometimes before a vowel) | j = yes |
| Z | ʦ = nuts |
This pronunciation guide was derived largely from the pronunciation chart presented at the "Unilang"-Wiki site on Luxembourgish pronunciation, available at http://www.unilang.org/wiki/index.php/Luxembourgish_pronunciation
Luxembourgish has three genders (masculine, feminine, and neuter), and has three cases (nominative, accusative, and dative). These are marked morphologically on determiners and pronouns. As in German, there is no morphological gender distinction in the plural.
The forms of the articles and of some selected determiners are given below:
|
|
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Distinct nominative forms survive in a few nominal phrases such as der Däiwel ("the devil") and eiser Herrgott ("our Lord"). Rare examples of the genitive are also found: Enn des Mounts ("end of the month"), Ufanks der Woch ("at the beginning of the week"). The functions of the genitive are normally expressed using a combination of the dative and a possessive determiner: e.g. dem Mann säi Buch (lit. "to the man his book", i.e. "the man's book"). This is known as a periphrastic genitive, and is a phenomenon also commonly seen in dialectal and colloquial German, and in Dutch.
The forms of the personal pronouns are given in the following table (unstressed forms appear in parentheses):
| nominative | accusative | dative | |
| 1sg | ech | mech | mir (mer) |
| 2sg | du (de) | dech | dir (der) |
| 3sgm | hien (en) | hien (en) | him (em) |
| 3sgf | si (se) | si (se) | hir (er) |
| 3sgn | hatt (et) | hatt (et) | him (em) |
| 1pl | mir (mer) | äis/eis | äis/eis |
| 2pl | dir (der) | iech | iech |
| 3pl | si (se) | si (se) | hinnen (en) |
The 2pl form is also used as a polite singular (like French vous, see T-V distinction); the forms are capitalised in writing. Women and girls can be referred to with forms of the neuter pronoun hatt:
Luxembourgish morphology distinguishes two types of adjective: attributive and predicative. Predicative adjectives appear with verbs like sinn ("to be"), and receive no extra ending:
Attributive adjectives are placed before the noun they describe, and change their ending according to the grammatical gender, number, and case:
Interesting to note is how the definite article changes with the use of an attributive adjective: feminine d goes to déi (or di), neuter d' goes to dat, and plural d' changes to déi.
The comparative in Luxembourgish is formed analytically, i.e. the adjective itself is not altered (compare the use of -er in German and English; tall → taller, klein → kleiner). Instead it is formed using the adverb méi: e.g. schéin → méi schéin
The superlative involves a synthetic form consisting of the adjective and the suffix -st: e.g. schéin → schéinst (compare German schönst, English prettiest). Attributive modification requires the emphatic definite article and the inflected superlative adjective:
Predicative modification uses either the same adjectival structure or the adverbial structure am+ -sten: e.g. schéin → am schéinsten:
Some common adjectives have exceptional comparative and superlative forms:
Luxembourgish exhibits "verb second" word order in clauses. More specifically, Luxembourgish is a V2-SOV language, like German and Dutch. In other words, we find the following finite clausal structures:
Non-finite verbs (infinitives and participles) generally appear in final position:
These rules interact so that in subordinate clauses, the finite verb and any non-finite verbs must all cluster at the end. Luxembourgish allows different word orders in these cases:
This is also the case when two non-finite verb forms occur together:
Luxembourgish (like Dutch but unlike German) allows prepositional phrases to appear after the verb cluster in subordinate clauses:
Luxembourgish has borrowed many French words. For example, the name for a bus driver is Buschauffeur (also Dutch), which would be Busfahrer in German and Chauffeur de bus in French.
Some words are different from High German but have equivalents in German dialects. An example is gromperen (potatoes - German: Kartoffeln). Other words are exclusive to Luxembourgish.
Note: Words spoken in sound clip do not reflect all words on this list.
Neologisms in Luxembourgish include both entirely new words, and the attachment of new meanings to old words in everyday speech. The most recent neologisms come from the English language in the fields of telecommunications, computer science, and the Internet.
Recent neologisms in Luxembourgish include:[8]
Between 2000 and 2002, the Luxembourgish linguist, Jérôme Lulling, compiled a lexical database of 125,000 word forms as the basis for the very first Luxembourgish spellchecker (Projet C.ORT.IN.A).
The LaF (Lëtzebuergesch als Friemsprooch – Luxembourgish as a Foreign Language) is a set of four language proficiency certifications for Luxembourgish and follows the ALTE framework of language examination standards. The tests are administered by the Centre de Langues Luxembourg, which is a member of the ALTE.
The "Centre for Luxembourg Studies" at the University of Sheffield was founded in 1995 on the initiative of Professor Gerald Newton. It is supported by the government of Luxembourg which funds an endowed chair in Luxembourg Studies at the university.[9]
|
|
|||||
|
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||