List of the most distant astronomical objects

This article documents the farthest known astronomical objects, and the time periods in which they were so classified.

Contents

List of most distant objects by type

Most distant object by type
Type Object Distance Notes
Any astronomical object, no matter what type UDFj-39546284 z≅10.3 [1]
Galaxy or protogalaxy UDFj-39546284 z≅10.3 [2]
See also: List of galaxies
Galaxy cluster or protocluster
See also: List of galaxy clusters
Galaxy supercluster
See also: List of superclusters
Galaxy hypercluster
(Wall, Sheet, Filament of galaxies)
Quasar ULAS J1120+0641 z=7.085 [3]
See also: List of quasars
Black hole ULAS J1120+0641 z=7.085 [3]
Star or protostar or post-stellar corpse Progenitor of GRB 090429B z≅9.4 [4]
Star cluster
Nebula Remnant of GRB 090429B z≅9.4 [4]
Most distant event by type
Type Event Distance Notes
Gamma-ray burst GRB 090429B z≅9.4 [4]
Supernova SN 19941 z=2.357 [5][6]
Cosmic Decoupling Cosmic Background Radiation creation z~1000 [7]

Most distant astronomical object recordholders

Objects in this list were found to be the most distant known object at the time of determination of their distance. This is frequently not the same as the date of their discovery.

Distances to astronomical objects may be determined through parallax measurements, use of standard references such as cepheid variables or Type Ia supernovas, or redshift measurement. Spectroscopic redshift measurement is preferred, while photometric redshift measurement is also used. The unit z represents redshift.

Most Distant Object Titleholders
Object Type Date Distance Notes
UDFj-39546284 Galaxy 2011 — z=~10.3 Announced January 26, 2011 also based on studies of images captured earlier in the Hubble Ultra Deep Field survey. (Not spectroscopically confirmed)[1]
UDFy-38135539 Galaxy 2010 − 2011 z=8.55 Announced October 20, 2010 based on studies of images captured earlier in the Hubble Ultra Deep Field survey.[8][9]
Progenitor of GRB 090423 / Remnant of GRB 090423 Gamma-ray burst progenitor / Gamma-ray burst remnant 2009 − 2010 z=8.2 [9][10]
IOK-1 Galaxy 2006 − 2009 z=6.96 [9][10][11][12][13]
SDF J132522.3+273520 Galaxy 2005 − 2006 z=6.597 [13][14]
SDF J132418.3+271455 Galaxy 2003 − 2005 z=6.578 [14][15][16][17]
HCM-6A Galaxy 2002 − 2003 z=6.56 The galaxy is lensed by galaxy cluster Abell 370. This was the first non-quasar galaxy found to exceed redshift 6. It exceeded the redshift of quasar SDSSp J103027.10+052455.0 of z=6.28[15][16][18][19][20][21]
SDSS J1030+0524
(SDSSp J103027.10+052455.0)		 Quasar 2001 − 2002 z=6.28 [22][23][24][25][26][27]
SDSS 1044-0125
(SDSSp J104433.04-012502.2)		 Quasar 2000 − 2001 z=5.82 [28][29][26][27][30][31][32]
SSA22-HCM1 Galaxy 1999 − 2000 z=5.74 [33][34]
HDF 4-473.0 Galaxy 1998 − 1999 z=5.60 [34]
RD1 (0140+326 RD1) Galaxy 1998 z=5.34 [35][36][37][34][38]
CL 1358+62 G1 & CL 1358+62 G2 Galaxies 1997 − 1998 z=4.92 These were the remotest objects known at the time of discovery. The pair of galaxies were found lensed by galaxy cluster CL1358+62 (z=0.33). This was the first time since 1964 that something other than a quasar held the record for being the most distant object in the universe.[36][39][40][37][34][41]
PC 1247-3406 Quasar 1991 − 1997 z=4.897 [28][42][43][44][45]
PC 1158+4635 Quasar 1989 − 1991 z=4.73 [28][45][46][47][48][49]
Q0051-279 Quasar 1987 − 1989 z=4.43 [50][46][49][51][52][53]
Q0000-26
(QSO B0000-26)		 Quasar 1987 z=4.11 [50][46][54]
PC 0910+5625
(QSO B0910+5625)		 Quasar 1987 z=4.04 This was the second quasar discovered with a redshift over 4.[28][55][46][56]
Q0046–293
(QSO J0048-2903)		 Quasar 1987 z=4.01 [50][46][55][57][58]
Q1208+1011
(QSO B1208+1011)		 Quasar 1986 − 1987 z=3.80 This is a gravitationally-lensed double-image quasar, and at the time of discovery to 1991, had the least angular separation between images, 0.45 ″.[55][59][60]
PKS 2000-330
(QSO J2003-3251, Q2000-330)		 Quasar 1982 − 1986 z=3.78 [55][61][62][63]
OQ172
(QSO B1442+101)		 Quasar 1974 − 1982 z=3.53 [64][65][66]
OH471
(QSO B0642+449)		 Quasar 1973 − 1974 z=3.408 Nickname was "the blaze marking the edge of the universe".[64][66][67][68][69]
4C 05.34 Quasar 1970 − 1973 z=2.877 Its redshift was so much greater than the previous record that it was believed to be erroneous, or spurious.[63][66][70][71][72]
5C 02.56
(7C 105517.75+495540.95)		 Quasar 1968 − 1970 z=2.399 [41][72][73]
4C 25.05
(4C 25.5)		 Quasar 1968 z=2.358 [41][72][74]
PKS 0237-23
(QSO B0237-2321)		 Quasar 1967 − 1968 z=2.225 [63][74][75][76][77]
4C 12.39
(Q1116+12, PKS 1116+12)		 Quasar 1966 − 1967 z=2.1291 [41][77][78][79]
4C 01.02
(Q0106+01, PKS 0106+1)		 Quasar 1965 − 1966 z=2.0990 [41][77][78][80]
3C 9 Quasar 1965 z=2.018 [77][81][82][83][84][85]
3C 147 Quasar 1964 − 1965 z=0.545 [86][87][88][89]
3C 295 Radio galaxy 1960 − 1964 z=0.461 [34][41][90][91][92]
LEDA 25177 (MCG+01-23-008) Brightest cluster galaxy 1951 − 1960 z=0.2
(V=61000 km/s)		 This galaxy lies in the Hydra Supercluster. It is located at B1950.0 08h 55m 4s +03° 21′ and is the BCG of the fainter Hydra Cluster Cl 0855+0321 (ACO 732).[34][92][93][94][95][96][97]
LEDA 51975 (MCG+05-34-069) Brightest cluster galaxy 1936 - z=0.13
(V=39000 km/s)		 The brightest cluster galaxy of the Bootes cluster (ACO 1930), an elliptical galaxy at B1950.0 14h 30m 6s +31° 46′ apparent magnitude 17.8, was found by Milton L. Humason in 1936 to have a 40,000 km/s recessional redshift velocity.[96][98][99]
LEDA 20221 (MCG+06-16-021) Brightest cluster galaxy 1932 - z=0.075
(V=23000 km/s)		 This is the BCG of the Gemini Cluster (ACO 568) and was located at B1950.0 07h 05m 0s +35° 04′[98][100]
BCG of WMH Christie's Leo Cluster Brightest cluster galaxy 1931 − 1932 z=
(V=19700 km/s)		 [100][101][102][103]
BCG of Baede's Ursa Major Cluster Brightest cluster galaxy 1930 − 1931 z=
(V=11700 km/s)		 [103][104]
NGC 4860 Galaxy 1929 − 1930 z=0.026
(V=7800 km/s)		 [104][105][106]
NGC 7619 Galaxy 1929 z=0.012
(V=3779 km/s)		 Using redshift measurements, NGC 7619 was the highest at the time of measurement. At the time of announcement, it was not yet accepted as a general guide to distance, however, later in the year, Edwin Hubble described redshift in relation to distance, which became accepted widely as an inferred distance.[105][107][108]
NGC 584
(Dreyer nebula 584)		 Galaxy 1921 − 1929 z=0.006
(V=1800 km/s)		 At the time, nebula had yet to be accepted as independent galaxies. However, in 1923, galaxies were generally recognized as external to the Milky Way.[96][105][107][109][110][111][112]
M104 (NGC 4594) Galaxy 1913 − 1921 z=0.004
(V=1180 km/s)		 This was the second galaxy whose redshift was determined; the first being Andromeda - which is approaching us and thus cannot have its redshift used to infer distance. Both were measured by Vesto Melvin Slipher. At this time, nebula had yet to be accepted as independent galaxies. NGC 4594 was measured originally as 1000 km/s, then refined to 1100, and then to 1180 in 1916.[105][109][112]
Arcturus
(Alpha Bootis)		 Star 1891 − 1910 160 ly
(18 mas)
(this is very inaccurate)		 This number is wrong; originally announced in 1891, the figure was corrected in 1910 to 40 ly (60 mas). From 1891 to 1910, it had been thought this was the star with the smallest known parallax, hence the most distant star whose distance was known. Prior to 1891, Arcturus had previously been recorded of having a parallax of 127 mas.[113][114][115][116]
Capella
(Alpha Aurigae)		 Star 1849 -  72 ly
(46 mas)		 [117][118][119]
Polaris
(Alpha Ursae Minoris)		 Star 1847 - 1849 50 ly
(80 mas)
(this is very inaccurate)		 [120][121]
Vega
(Alpha Lyrae)		 Star (part of a double star pair) 1839 - 1847 7.77 pc
(125 mas)		 [120]
61 Cygni Binary star 1838 − 1839 3.48 pc
(313.6 mas)		 This was the first star other than the Sun to have its distance measured.[120][122][123]
Uranus Planet of the Solar System 1781 − 1838 18 AU This was the last planet discovered before the first successful measurement of stellar parallax. It had been determined that the stars were much farther away than the planets.
Saturn Planet of the Solar System 1619 − 1781 10 AU From Kepler's Third Law, it was finally determined that Saturn is indeed the outermost of the classical planets, and its distance derived. It had only previously been conjectured to be the outermost, due to it having the longest orbital period, and slowest orbital motion. It had been determined that the stars were much farther away than the planets.
Mars Planet of the Solar System 1609 − 1619 2.6 AU when Mars is diametrically opposed to Earth Kepler correctly characterized Mars and Earth's orbits in the publication Astronomia nova. It had been conjectured that the fixed stars were much farther away than the planets.
Sun Star 3rd century BCE — 1609 1 AU (An AU is the measurement of the average distance between the Sun and the Earth Aristarchus of Samos made a measurement of the distance of the Sun from the Earth in relation to the distance of the Moon from the Earth. The distance to the Moon was described in Earth radii (20, also inaccurate). The diameter of the Earth had been calculated previously. At the time, it was assumed that some of the planets were further away, but their distances could not be measured. The order of the planets was conjecture until Kepler determined the distances of the four true planets from the Sun that were not Earth. It had been conjectured that the fixed stars were much farther away than the planets.
  • z represents redshift, a measure of recessional velocity and inferred distance due to cosmological expansion
  • mas represents parallax, a measure of angle and distance can be determined through trigonometry

List of most distant objects by year of object discovery

This list contains a list of most distant objects by year of discovery of the object, not the determination of its distance. Objects may have been discovered without distance determination, and were found subsequently to be the most distant known at that time.

Farthest known astronomical objects per year of record
Year of record Distance (Mly) Object Type Detected using First record by (1)
964 2.5 [124] Andromeda Galaxy Spiral galaxy naked eye Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi[125]
1654 3 Triangulum Galaxy Spiral galaxy refracting telescope Giovanni Battista Hodierna[126]
1779 68[127] Messier 58 Barred spiral galaxy refracting telescope Charles Messier[128]
1880s 206 ± 29[129] NGC 1 Spiral galaxy Dreyer, Herschel
1959 2,400 [130] 3C 273 Quasar Parkes Radio Telescope Maarten Schmidt, Bev Oke[131]
1960 5,000 [132] 3C 295 Radio galaxy Palomar Observatory Rudolph Minkowski
2009 13,000 [133] GRB 090423 Gamma-ray burst progenitor Swift Gamma-Ray Burst Mission Krimm, H. et al.[134]
(1): Object must have been named or described. Objects like OJ 287 are ignored, because though they were detected as early as 1891 using photographic plates, they were ignored until the advent of radiotelescopes.

References

  1. ^ a b "Hubble finds a new contender for galaxy distance record". Space Telescope (heic1103 - Science Release). 26 January 2011. http://www.spacetelescope.org/news/heic1103/. Retrieved 2011-01-27. 
  2. ^ NASA, "NASA's Hubble Finds Most Distant Galaxy Candidate Ever Seen in Universe", 26 January 2011
  3. ^ a b Scientific American, "Brilliant, but Distant: Most Far-Flung Known Quasar Offers Glimpse into Early Universe", John Matson, 29 June 2011
  4. ^ a b c Science Codex, "GRB 090429B - most distant gamma-ray burst yet", NASA/Goddard, 27 May 2011
  5. ^ Sky and Telescope, "Image Stacking Nets Ancient Supernovae", Kelly Beatty, 8 July 2009
  6. ^ Nature 460, 237-239 (9 July 2009), "Type IIn supernovae at redshift z≅2 from archival data", Jeff Cooke et al., doi:10.1038/nature08082 , arXiv:0907.1928
  7. ^ Astrophysical Journal Supplement, "Five-Year Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe Observations: Data Processing, Sky Maps, and Basic Results", Volume 180, Issue 2, pp. 225-245, Hinshaw, G.; Weiland, J. L.; Hill, R. S.; Odegard, N.; Larson, D.; Bennett, C. L.; Dunkley, J.; Gold, B.; Greason, M. R.; Jarosik, N.; Komatsu, E.; Nolta, M. R.; Page, L.; Spergel, D. N.; Wollack, E.; Halpern, M.; Kogut, A.; Limon, M.; Meyer, S. S.; Tucker, G. S.; Wright, E. L.;, February 2009, doi:10.1088/0067-0049/180/2/225 , Bibcode: 2009ApJS..180..225H
  8. ^ "Galaxy is most distant object yet". BBC. 2010-10-20. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-11580789. Retrieved 2010-10-22. 
  9. ^ a b c Lehnert, M. D.; Nesvadba, N. P. H.; Cuby, J.-G.; Swinbank, A. M.; Morris, S.; Clément, B.; Evans, C. J.; Bremer, M. N. et al. (2010). "Spectroscopic confirmation of a galaxy at redshift z = 8.6". Nature 467 (7318): 940–942. arXiv:1010.4312. Bibcode 2010Natur.467..940L. doi:10.1038/nature09462. PMID 20962840. 
  10. ^ a b New Scientist, "Most distant object in the universe spotted", Rachel Courtland, 22:32 27 April 2009 . Retrieved 2009-11-11.
  11. ^ New Scientist, "First generation of galaxies glimpsed forming", David Shiga, 19:01 13 September 2006 (accessed 2009/11/11)
  12. ^ Nature 443, 186-188 (14 September 2006), A galaxy at a redshift z = 6.96, doi:10.1038/nature05104;
  13. ^ a b arXiv, Star Forming Galaxies at z > 5 , Fri, 4 April 2008
  14. ^ a b PASJ: Publ. Astron. Soc. Japan 57, 165-182, February 25, 2005; The SUBARU Deep Field Project: Lymanα Emitters at a Redshift of 6.6
  15. ^ a b BBC News, Most distant galaxy detected, Tuesday, 25 March 2003, 14:28 GMT
  16. ^ a b SpaceRef, Subaru Telescope Detects the Most Distant Galaxy Yet and Expects Many More, Monday, March 24, 2003
  17. ^ arXiv, The Discovery of Two Lyman$\alpha$ Emitters Beyond Redshift 6 in the Subaru Deep Field, 28 February 2003
  18. ^ New Scientist, New record for Universe's most distant object, 17:19 14 March 2002
  19. ^ BBC News, Far away stars light early cosmos, Thursday, 14 March 2002, 11:38 GMT
  20. ^ The Astrophysical Journal Letters, 568:L75–L79, April 1, 2002 ; A Redshift z = 6.56 Galaxy behind the Cluster Abell 370 ; DOI: 10.1086/340424
  21. ^ "K2.1 HCM 6A — Discovery of a redshift z = 6.56 galaxy lying behind the cluster Abell 370". Hera.ph1.uni-koeln.de. 2008-04-14. http://hera.ph1.uni-koeln.de/~heintzma/U/Lens.htm. Retrieved 2010-10-22. 
  22. ^ arXiv, VLT observations of the z= 6.28 quasar SDSS 1030+0524PDF, Feb 2002
  23. ^ The Astrophysical Journal, 578:702–707, 20 October 2002, A Constraint on the Gravitational Lensing Magnification and Age of the Redshift z = 6.28 Quasar SDSS 1030+0524
  24. ^ THE ASTRONOMICAL JOURNAL, 126:1-14, 2003 July ; PROBING THE IONIZATION STATE OF THE UNIVERSE AT z > 6
  25. ^ The Astrophysical Journal, Volume 611, Issue 1, pp. L13-L16 ; The X-Ray Spectrum of the z=6.30 QSO SDSS J1030+0524 ; 2004ApJ...611L..13F
  26. ^ a b PennState Eberly College of Science, Discovery Announced of Two Most Distant Objects, June 2001
  27. ^ a b SDSS, Early results from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey: From under our nose to the edge of the universe, June 2001
  28. ^ a b c d PennState - Eberly College of Science - Science Journal - Summer 2000 -- Vol. 17, No. 1 International Team of Astronomers Finds Most Distant Object
  29. ^ The Astrophysical Journal Letters, 522:L9–L12, 1999 September 1, An Extremely Luminous Galaxy at z = 5.74
  30. ^ PennState Eberly College of Science, X-rays from the Most Distant Quasar Captured with the XMM-Newton Satellite, Dec 2000
  31. ^ UW-Madison Astronomy, Confirmed High Redshift (z > 5.5) Galaxies - (Last Updated 10th February 2005)
  32. ^ SPACE.com, Most Distant Object in Universe Comes Closer, 01 December 2000
  33. ^ The Astrophysical Journal Letters, 522:L9–L12, September 1, 1999, An Extremely Luminous Galaxy at z = 5.74
  34. ^ a b c d e f Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific, 111: 1475-1502, 1999 December; SEARCH TECHNIQUES FOR DISTANT GALAXIES; INTRODUCTION
  35. ^ New York Times, Peering Back in Time, Astronomers Glimpse Galaxies Aborning, October 20, 1998
  36. ^ a b Astronomy Picture of the Day, A Baby Galaxy, March 24, 1998
  37. ^ a b arXiv, A Galaxy at z = 5.34PDF (209 KB), 11 March 1998
  38. ^ "A New Most Distant Object: z = 5.34". Astro.ucla.edu. http://www.astro.ucla.edu/~wright/old_new_cosmo.html#12Mar98. Retrieved 2010-10-22. 
  39. ^ Astronomy Picture of the Day, Behind CL1358+62: A New Farthest Object, July 31, 1997
  40. ^ Astrophysical Journal Letters v.486, p.L75 ; 09/1997, A Pair of Lensed Galaxies at z=4.92 in the Field of CL 1358+62 ; 1997ApJ...486L..75F ; 10.1086/310844
  41. ^ a b c d e f "Astrophysics and Space Science" 1999, 269/270, 165-181 ; GALAXIES AT HIGH REDSHIFT - 8. Z > 5 GALAXIES ; Garth Illingworth
  42. ^ The Astronomical Journal, vol. 108, no. 4, p. 1147-1155, Multicolor detection of high-redshift quasars, 2: Five objects with Z greater than or approximately equal to 4, April 1994
  43. ^ New Scientist, issue 1842, 10 October 1992, page 17, Science: Infant galaxy's light show
  44. ^ FermiLab Scientists of Sloan Digital Sky Survey Discover Most Distant Quasar December 8, 1998
  45. ^ a b Royal Astronomical Society, Monthly Notices, vol. 294, p. L7-L12 ; Discovery of radio-loud quasars with Z = 4.72 and Z = 4.01 ; Code: 1998MNRAS.294L...7H
  46. ^ a b c d e Astronomical Journal (ISSN 0004-6256), vol. 101, Jan. 1991, p. 5-17; Quasars and galaxy formation. I - The Z > 4 objects
  47. ^ SIMBAD, Object query : PC 1158+4635, QSO B1158+4635 -- Quasar
  48. ^ LENNOX L. COWIE (1991) Young Galaxies Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 647 (1), 31–41 doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1991.tb32157.x
  49. ^ a b New York Times, Peering to Edge of Time, Scientists Are Astonished, November 20, 1989
  50. ^ a b c Nature 330, 453 - 455 (03 December 1987); Quasars of redshift z = 4.43 and z = 4.07 in the South Galactic Pole field, doi:10.1038/330453a0
  51. ^ Astrophysics (journal), Volume 29, Number 2 / September, 1988, pp.657-671, Absorption spectra of quasars, ISSN 0571-7256, DOI 10.1007/BF01005972
  52. ^ New York Times, Objects Detected in Universe May Be the Most Distant Ever Sighted, January 14, 1988
  53. ^ New York Times, Astronomers Peer Deeper Into Cosmos, May 10, 1988
  54. ^ SIMBAD, Object query : Q0000-26, QSO B0000-26 -- Quasar
  55. ^ a b c d Astrophysical Journal, Part 2 - Letters to the Editor (ISSN 0004-637X), vol. 321, Oct. 1, 1987, p. L7-L10. Research funded by the John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation. Astrophys. J., 321, L7-L10 (1987) - 01.01.86 01.01.86 October 1987 ; [1] PC 0910+5625 : an optically selected quasar with a redshift of 4.04 ; 1987ApJ...321L...7S
  56. ^ SIMBAD, Object query : PC 0910+5625, QSO B0910+5625 -- Quasar
  57. ^ Nature, 325, 131-132 (1987) - 01.01.86 01.01.86 ; First observation of a quasar with a redshift of 4; 1987Natur.325..131W
  58. ^ SIMBAD, Object query : Q0046-293, QSO J0048-2903 -- Quasar
  59. ^ SIMBAD, Object query : Q1208+1011, QSO B1208+1011 -- Quasar
  60. ^ NewScientist, Quasar doubles help to fix the Hubble constant, 16 November 1991
  61. ^ Orwell Astronomical Society (Ipswich) - OASI ; Archived Astronomy News Items, 1972 - 1997
  62. ^ SIMBAD, Object query : PKS 2000-330, QSO J2003-3251 -- Quasar
  63. ^ a b c The Structure of the Physical Universe, Volume III - The Universe of Motion, CHAPTER 23 - Quasar Redshifts, by DEWEY B. LARSON, Library of Congress Catalog Card No. 79-88078, ISBN 0-913138-11-8 , Copyright © 1959, 1971, 1984
  64. ^ a b OSU Big Ear, History of the OSU Radio Observatory
  65. ^ SIMBAD, Object query : OQ172, QSO B1442+101 -- Quasar
  66. ^ a b c QUASARS - THREE YEARS LATER, 1974 [2]
  67. ^ Time Magazine, The Edge of Night, Monday, Apr. 23, 1973
  68. ^ SIMBAD, Object query : OH471, QSO B0642+449 -- Quasar
  69. ^ Reports on Progress in Physics, Volume 53, Issue 8 (August 1990)The detection of high-redshift quasars
  70. ^ Astrophysical Journal, vol. 163, p.235 ; Some Inferences from Spectrophotometry of Quasi-Stellar Sources ; 1971ApJ...163..235B
  71. ^ Quasars and Pulsars, DEWEY B. LARSON, (c) 1971 ; CHAPTER VIII - Quasars: The General Picture ; LOC 75-158894
  72. ^ a b c Nature 226, 532 (09 May 1970); The Unusually Large Redshift of 4C 05.34 ; doi:10.1038/226532a0
  73. ^ SIMBAD, Object query : 5C 02.56, 7C 105517.75+495540.95 -- Quasar
  74. ^ a b Astrophysical Journal, vol. 154, p.L41 ; The Distribution of Redshifts in Quasi-Stellar Objects, N-Systems and Some Radio and Compact Galaxies ; 1968ApJ...154L..41B
  75. ^ Time Magazine, A Farther-Out Quasar, Friday, Apr. 07, 1967
  76. ^ SIMBAD, Object query : QSO B0237-2321, QSO B0237-2321 -- Quasar
  77. ^ a b c d Astrophysical Journal, vol. 147, p.851 ; On the Wavelengths of the Absorption Lines in Quasi-Stellar Objects ; 1967ApJ...147..851B
  78. ^ a b Time Magazine, The Man on the Mountain, Friday, Mar. 11, 1966
  79. ^ SIMBAD, Object query : Q1116+12, 4C 12.39 -- Quasar
  80. ^ SIMBAD, Object query : Q0106+01, 4C 01.02 -- Quasar
  81. ^ Time Magazine, Toward the Edge of the Universe, Friday, May. 21, 1965
  82. ^ Time Magazine, The Quasi-Quasars, Friday, Jun. 18, 1965
  83. ^ The Cosmic Century: A History of Astrophysics and Cosmology Page 379 by Malcolm S. Longair - 2006
  84. ^ Astrophysical Journal, vol. 141, p.1295 ; Large Redshifts of Five Quasi-Stellar Sources ; 1965ApJ...141.1295S
  85. ^ The Discovery of Radio Galaxies and Quasars, 1965
  86. ^ Quasi-Stellar Sources and Gravitational Collapse, Proceedings of the 1st Texas Symposium on Relativistic Astrophysics. Edited by Ivor Robinson, Alfred Schild and E.L. Schucking. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1965., p.269 ; Redshifts of the Quasi-Stellar Radio Sources 3c 47 and 3c 147
  87. ^ Astronomical Journal (ISSN 0004-6256), vol. 103, no. 5, May 1992, p. 1451-1456 ; Radio properties of optically selected high-redshift quasars. I - VLA observations of 22 quasars at 6 CM ; 1992AJ....103.1451S
  88. ^ Time Magazine, Finding the Fastest Galaxy: 76,000 Miles per Second, Friday, Apr. 10, 1964
  89. ^ Astrophysical Journal, vol. 139, p.781 ; Redshift of the Quasi-Stellar Radio Sources 3c 47 and 3c 147. 1964ApJ...139..781S
  90. ^ "The Discovery of Radio Galaxies and Quasars". http://www.astro.caltech.edu/~george/ay21/qso.txt. Retrieved 2010-10-22. 
  91. ^ Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics Vol. 31: 639-688 (September 1993) ; High Redshift Radio Galaxies ; (doi:10.1146/annurev.aa.31.090193.003231)
  92. ^ a b Astrophysical Journal, vol. 133, p.355 ; The Ability of the 200-INCH Telescope to Discriminate Between Selected World Models ; 1961ApJ...133..355S
  93. ^ Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, Vol. 113, p.658 ; The law of red shifts (George Darwin Lecture) Hubble, E. P. ; 1953MNRAS.113..658H
  94. ^ OBSERVATIONAL TESTS OF WORLD MODELS; 6.1. Local Tests for Linearity of the Redshift-Distance Relation ; Annu. Rev. Astron. Astrophys. 1988. 26: 561-630
  95. ^ Astron. J., 61, 97-162 (1956) ; Redshifts and magnitudes of extragalactic nebulae ; 1956AJ.....61...97H
  96. ^ a b c The Observatory, Vol. 73, p. 97-103 (1953) ; May 8, 1953 meeting of the Royal Astronomical Society ; 1953Obs....73...97.
  97. ^ Astronomical Society of the Pacific Leaflets, Vol. 7, p.393 ; From Atoms to Galaxies ; 1958ASPL....7..393M
  98. ^ a b Astrophysical Journal, vol. 83, p.10 ; The Apparent Radial Velocities of 100 Extra-Galactic Nebulae ; 1936ApJ....83...10H
  99. ^ THE FIRST 50 YEARS AT PALOMAR: 1949-1999 ; The Early Years of Stellar Evolution, Cosmology, and High-Energy Astrophysics; 5.2.1. The Mount Wilson Years ; Annu. Rev. Astron. Astrophys. 1999. 37: 445-486
  100. ^ a b Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada, Vol. 26, p.180 ; Notes and Queries (Doings at Mount Wilson-Ritchey's Photographic Telescope-Infra-red Photographic Plates) ; 1932JRASC..26..180C
  101. ^ Astrophysical Journal, vol. 74, p.35 ; Apparent Velocity-Shifts in the Spectra of Faint Nebulae ; 07/1931 ; 1931ApJ....74...35H
  102. ^ Astrophysical Journal, vol. 74, p.43 ; The Velocity-Distance Relation among Extra-Galactic Nebulae ; 1931ApJ....74...43H
  103. ^ a b Astronomical Society of the Pacific Leaflets, Vol. 1, p.149 ; The Large Apparent Velocities of Extra-Galactic Nebulae ; 1931ASPL....1..149H
  104. ^ a b Astrophys. J., 71, 351-356 (1930) The Rayton short-focus spectrographic objective. 1930ApJ....71..351H
  105. ^ a b c d Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific, v.108, p.1073-1082 ; H_0: The Incredible Shrinking Constant, 1925-1975 ; 1996PASP..108.1073T
  106. ^ Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific, Vol. 41, No. 242, p.244 ; The Berkeley Meeting of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific, June 20-21, 1929 ; 1929PASP...41..244
  107. ^ a b From the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences; Volume 15 : March 15, 1929 : Number 3 ; THE LARGE RADIAL VELOCITY OF N. G. C. 7619 ; January 17, 1929
  108. ^ THE JOURNAL OF THE ROYAL ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETY OF CANADA / JOURNAL DE LA SOCIÉTÉ ROYALE D'ASTRONOMIE DU CANADA; Vol. 83, No.6 December 1989 Whole No. 621 ; EDWIN HUBBLE 1889-1953
  109. ^ a b National Academy of Sciences; Biographical Memoirs: V. 52 - VESTO MELVIN SLIPHER; ISBN 0309030994
  110. ^ Harvard College Observatory Bulletin No. 739, pp.1-1 ; Nebula with Highest Receding Velocity ; 1920BHarO.739....1B
  111. ^ New York Times, DREYER NEBULA NO. 584 INCONCEIVABLY DISTANT; Dr. Slipher Says the Celestial Speed Champion Is 'Many Millions of Light Years' Away. ; January 19, 1921, Wednesday
  112. ^ a b New York Times, NEBULA DREYER BREAKS ALL SKY SPEED RECORDS; Portion of the Constellation of Cetus Is Rushing Along at Rate of 1,240 Miles a Second. ; January 18, 1921, Tuesday
  113. ^ Hawera & Normanby Star, "Items of Interest", 29 December 1910, Volume LX, page 3 . Retrieved 25 March 2010.
  114. ^ Evening Star (San Jose), "Colossal Arcturus", Pittsburgh Dispatch, 10 June 1910 . Retrieved 25 March 2010.
  115. ^ Nelson Evening Mail, "British Bloodthirstiness", 2 November 1891, Volume XXV, Issue 230, Page 3 . Retrieved 25 March 2010.
  116. ^ "Handbook of astronomy", Dionysius Lardner & Edwin Dunkin, Lockwood & Co. (1875), pp.121
  117. ^ "The Three Heavens", Josiah Crampton, William Hunt and Company (1876), pp.164
  118. ^ (German) "Kosmos: Entwurf einer physischen Weltbeschreibung", Volume 4, Alexander von Humboldt, J. G. Cotta (1858), pp.195
  119. ^ "Outlines of Astronomy", John F. W. Herschel, Longman & Brown (1849), ch. 'Parallax of Stars', pp.551 (section 851)
  120. ^ a b c The North American Review, "The Observatory at Pulkowa", FGW Struve, Volume 69 Issue 144 (July 1849)
  121. ^ The Sidereal Messenger, "Of the Precession of the Equinoxes, Nutation of the Earth's Axis, And Aberration of Light", Vol.1, No.12, April 1847, 'Derby, Bradley, & Co.' Cincinatti
  122. ^ SEDS, "Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel (July 22, 1784 - March 17, 1846)" . Retrieved 11 November 2009.
  123. ^ Harper's New Monthly Magazine, "Some Talks of an Astronomer", Simon Newcomb, Volume 0049 Issue 294 (November 1874), pp.827 (accessed 2009-Nov-11)
  124. ^ Jensen, Joseph B.; Tonry, John L.; Barris, Brian J.; Thompson, Rodger I.; Liu, Michael C.; Rieke, Marcia J.; Ajhar, Edward A.; Blakeslee, John P. (February 2003). "Measuring Distances and Probing the Unresolved Stellar Populations of Galaxies Using Infrared Surface Brightness Fluctuations". Astrophysical Journal 583 (2): 712–726. arXiv:astro-ph/0210129. Bibcode 2003ApJ...583..712J. doi:10.1086/345430. 
  125. ^ Kepple, George Robert; Glen W. Sanner (1998). The Night Sky Observer's Guide, Volume 1. Willmann-Bell, Inc.. p. 18. ISBN 0-943396-58-1. 
  126. ^ Fodera-Serio, G.; Indorato, L.; Nastasi, P. (February 1985). "Hodierna's Observations of Nebulae and his Cosmology". Journal of the History of Astronomy 16 (1): 1–36. Bibcode 1985JHA....16....1F. 
  127. ^ G. Gavazzi, A. Boselli, M. Scodeggio, D. Pierini and E. Belsole (1999). "The 3D structure of the Virgo cluster from H-band Fundamental Plane and Tully-Fisher distance determinations". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 304 (3): 595–610. arXiv:astro-ph/9812275. Bibcode 1999MNRAS.304..595G. doi:10.1046/j.1365-8711.1999.02350.x. 
  128. ^ Burnham, Robert Jr (1978). Burnham's Celestial Handbook: Volume Three, Pavo Through Vulpecula. Dover. pp. 2086–2088. ISBN 0-486-23673-0. 
  129. ^ "Distance Results for NGC 0001". NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database. http://nedwww.ipac.caltech.edu/cgi-bin/nDistance?name=NGC+0001. Retrieved 2010-05-03. 
  130. ^ "On the Mass and Distance of the Quasi-Stellar Object 3C 273". Adsabs.harvard.edu. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1972Ap&SS..15..395F. Retrieved 2010-10-22. 
  131. ^ Variable Star Of The Season
  132. ^ "A New Distant Cluster of Galaxies". Cdsads.u-strasbg.fr. http://cdsads.u-strasbg.fr/cgi-bin/nph-bib_query?1960ApJ...132..908M. Retrieved 2010-10-22. 
  133. ^ "Exploding star is oldest object seen in universe". Cnn.com. 2009-04-29. http://www.cnn.com/2009/TECH/04/29/gamma.ray.burst.space/index.html. Retrieved 2010-10-22. 
  134. ^ Krimm, H. et al (2009). "GRB 090423: Swift detection of a burst". GCN Circulars (9198). http://gcn.gsfc.nasa.gov/gcn3/9198.gcn3.