| Khedivate of Egypt الخديوية المصرية (ar) Mısır Hidiviyet-i میصیر حیضیوییهتی (ota) |
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| Autonomous vassal of the Ottoman Empire (under British occupation from 1882) |
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| Anthem Salam Affandina |
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Globe with modern borders highlighting the following:
Khedivate of Egypt
Ceded from Sudan to Italian North Africa in 1919
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| Capital | Cairo | ||||
| Language(s) | Arabic, English[a] | ||||
| Religion | Sunni Islam , Coptic Christianity | ||||
| Government | Constitutional monarchy | ||||
| Khedive | |||||
| - 1867–1879 | Isma'il Pasha | ||||
| - 1879–1892 | Tewfik Pasha | ||||
| - 1892–1914 | Abbas Hilmi II | ||||
| British Agent and Consul-General | |||||
| - 1883–1907 | Earl of Cromer | ||||
| - 1907–1911 | Sir Eldon Gorst | ||||
| - 1911–1914 | Earl Kitchener | ||||
| Prime minister | |||||
| - 1878–1879 | Nubar Pasha (first) | ||||
| - 1914 | Hussein Rushdi Pasha (last) | ||||
| Historical era | Scramble for Africa | ||||
| - Established | 8 June 1867 | ||||
| - Suez Canal opened | 17 November 1869 | ||||
| - Urabi Revolt | 1881–1882 | ||||
| - British invasion | July – September 1882 | ||||
| - Sudan Convention | 18 January 1899 | ||||
| - Disestablished | 19 December 1914 | ||||
| Area | |||||
| - 1882[b] | 34,184 km2 (13,199 sq mi) | ||||
| Population | |||||
| - 1882[b] est. | 6,805,000 | ||||
| Density | 199.1 /km2 (515.6 /sq mi) | ||||
| - 1897[b] est. | 9,715,000 | ||||
| Density | 284.2 /km2 (736.1 /sq mi) | ||||
| - 1907[b] est. | 11,287,000 | ||||
| Density | 330.2 /km2 (855.2 /sq mi) | ||||
| Currency | Egyptian pound | ||||
| Today part of | Egypt Libya South Sudan Sudan |
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| ^ a. English became the sole official language in 1898.[1]
^ b. Area and density include inhabited areas only. The total area of Egypt, including deserts, is 994,000 km2.[2][3] |
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| History of Egypt | |
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This article is part of a series |
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| Prehistory | |
| Ancient Egypt | |
| Early Dynastic Period | |
| Old Kingdom | |
| First Intermediate Period | |
| Middle Kingdom | |
| Second Intermediate Period | |
| New Kingdom | |
| Third Intermediate Period | |
| Late Period | |
| Classical Antiquity | |
| Achaemenid Egypt | |
| Ptolemaic Egypt | |
| Roman & Byzantine Egypt | |
| Medieval Egypt | |
| Fatimid Egypt | |
| Ayyubid Egypt | |
| Mamluk Egypt | |
| Ottoman Egypt | |
| French occupation | |
| Egypt under Muhammad Ali | |
| Modern Egypt | |
| Khedivate of Egypt | |
| Sultanate of Egypt | |
| Kingdom of Egypt | |
| Republic | |
|
Egypt Portal |
The Khedivate of Egypt (Arabic: خديوية مصر, Egyptian Arabic pronunciation: [xedeˈwejjet ˈmɑsˤɾ]) was an autonomous tributary state of the Ottoman Empire.
Contents |
The Egypt Eyalet was an eyalet (province) of the Ottoman Empire. The eyalet was ruled locally by the Mamluk military caste and their various beys (chieftans), who started to fight amongst themselves for control of the region. Napoleon Bonaparte saw an opportunity, and France invaded in 1798.
Between 1799 and 1801, the Ottoman Porte (government), working at times with the British, undertook various campaigns to restore Ottoman rule in Egypt. By August, 1801, the remaining French forces of General Jacques-François Menou withdrew from Egypt.
The period between 1801 and 1805 was, effectively, a three way civil war in the eyalet of Egypt between the Ottoman Turks, the local Mamluks, and troops the Ottoman Porte dispatched from Rumelia (their European eyalets), under the command of Muhammad Ali Pasha, to restore the Empire's authority.
Following the defeat of the French, the Ottoman Porte assigned Husrev Pasha as the new Wāli govenor of Egypt, tasking him to kill or imprison the surviving beys of the Mamluk. Many of these were freed by or fled with the British, while others held Minia between Upper and Lower Egypt.
Amid these disturbances, Husrev Pasha attempted to disband his Albanian bashi-bazouks (soldiers) without pay. This led to rioting that drove Husrev Pasha from Cairo. During the ensuing turmoil, the Ottoman Porte sent Muhammad Ali Pasha to Egypt.
However, Muhammad Ali seized control of the eyalet of Egypt, declaring himself ruler of Egypt and quickly consolidating an independent local powerbase. After repeated failed attempts to remove and kill him, in 1805, the Porte officially recognized Muhammad Ali as Wāli of Egypt. Demonstrating his grander ambitions, Muhammad Ali Pasha claimed for himself the higher title of Khedive (Viceroy), ruling the self-proclaimed (but not recognized) Khedivate of Egypt. He murdered the remaining Mamluk beys in 1811, solidifying his own control of Egypt. He is regarded as the founder of modern Egypt because of the dramatic reforms he instituted in the military, agricultural, economic and cultural spheres.
By 1820, Muhammad Ali's army was strong enough to invade and conquer the Sudan. He assisted the Ottoman sultan in fighting the Greeks during the Greek War of Independence until his navy was defeated by a European coalition at Navarino in 1827.[4]
Although Muhammad Ali had only been granted the title of wali, he proclaimed himself khedive, or hereditary viceroy, early on during his rule. The Ottoman government, although irritated, did nothing until Muhammad Ali invaded Ottoman-ruled Syria in 1831. The governorship of Syria had been promised him by the sultan, Mahmud II, for his assistance during the Greek War of Independence, but the title was not granted to him after the war.[4] This caused the Ottomans, allied with the British, to counter-attack in 1839.
In 1840, the British bombarded Beirut and an Anglo-Ottoman force landed and seized Acre.[5] The Egyptian army was forced to retreat back home, and Syria again became an Ottoman province. As a result of the Convention of London (1840), Muhammad Ali gave up all conquered lands with the exception of the Sudan and was in turn granted the hereditary governorship of the Sudan.
By 1848, Muhammad Ali was old and senile enough for his tuberculosis-ridden son, Ibrahim, to demand his accession to the governorship. The Ottoman sultan acceded to the demands, and Muhammad Ali was removed from power. However, Ibrahim died of his disease months later, outlived by his father, who died in 1849.
Ibrahim was succeeded by his nephew Abbas I, who undid many of Muhammad Ali's accomplishments. Abbas was assassinated by two of his slaves in 1854, and Muhammad Ali's fourth son, Sa'id, succeeded him. Sa'id brought back many of his father's policies[6] but otherwise had an unremarkable reign.
Sa'id ruled for only nine years,[7] and his nephew Isma'il, another grandson of Muhammad Ali, became wali. In 1867, the Ottoman sultan acknowledged Isma'il's use of the title khedive.
In 1882 opposition to European control led to growing tension amongst native notables, the most dangerous opposition coming from the army. A large military demonstration in September 1881 forced the Khedive Tewfiq to dismiss his Prime Minister. In April 1882 France and Great Britain sent warships to Alexandria to bolster the Khedive amidst a turbulent climate, spreading fear of invasion throughout the country. By June Egypt was in the hands of nationalists opposed to European domination of the country. A British naval bombardment of Alexandria had little effect on the opposition which led to the landing of a British expeditionary force at both ends of the Suez Canal in August 1882. The British succeeded in defeating the Egyptian Army at Tel El Kebir in September and took control of the country putting Tewfiq back in control. The purpose of the invasion had been to restore political stability to Egypt under a government of the Khedive and international controls which were in place to streamline Egyptian financing since 1876.
British occupation ended nominally with the deposition of the last khedive Abbas II on 5 November 1914[8] and the establishment of a British protectorate, with the installation of sultan Hussein Kamel on 19 December 1914.
By Isma'il's reign, the Egyptian government, headed by the minister Nubar Pasha, had become dependent on Britain and France for a healthy economy. Isma'il attempted to end this European dominance, while at the same time pursuing an aggressive domestic policy. Under Isma'il, 112 canals and 400 bridges were built in Egypt.[9]
Because of his efforts to gain economic independence from the European powers, Isma'il became unpopular with many British and French diplomats, including Evelyn Baring and Alfred Milner, who claimed that he was "ruining Egypt."[9]
In 1869, the completion of the Suez Canal gave Britain a faster route to India. This made Egypt increasingly reliant on Britain for both military and economic aid. Isma'il made no effort to reconcile with the European powers, who pressured the Ottoman sultan into removing[10] him from power.
Isma'il was succeeded by his eldest son Tewfik, who, unlike his younger brothers, had not been educated in Europe. He pursued a policy of closer relations with Britain and France but his authority was undermined in a rebellion led by his war minister, Arabi Pasha, in 1882. Arabi took advantage of violent riots in Alexandria to seize control of the government and temporarily depose Tewfik.
British naval forces shelled and captured Alexandria, and an expeditionary force under General Sir Garnet Wolseley was formed in England. The British army landed in Egypt soon afterwards, and defeated Arabi's army in the Battle of Tel el-Kebir. Arabi was tried for treason and sentenced to death, but the sentence was commuted to exile. After the revolt, the Egyptian army was reorganized on a British model and commanded by British officers.
Meanwhile, a religious rebellion had broken out in the Sudan, led by Muhammad Ahmed, who proclaimed himself the Mahdi. The Mahdist rebels had seized the regional capital of Kordofan and annihilated two British-led expeditions sent to quell it.[11] The British soldier-adventurer Charles George Gordon, an ex-governor of the Sudan, was sent to the Sudanese capital, Khartoum, with orders to evacuate its minority of European and Egyptian inhabitants. Instead of evacuating the city, Gordon prepared for a siege and held out from 1884-85. However, Khartoum eventually fell, and he was killed.[11]
The British Gordon Relief Expedition was delayed by several battles, and was thus unable to reach Khartoum and save Gordon. The fall of Khartoum resulted in the proclamation of an Islamic state, ruled over first by the Mahdi and then by his successor Khalifa Abdullahi.
In 1896, during the reign of Tewfik's son, Abbas II, a massive Anglo-Egyptian force, under the command of General Herbert Kitchener, began the reconquest of the Sudan.[12] The Mahdists were defeated in the battles of Abu Hamid and Atbara. The campaign was concluded with the Anglo-Egyptian victory of Omdurman, the Mahdist capital.
The Khalifa was hunted down and killed in 1899, in the Battle of Umm Diwaykarat, and Anglo-Egyptian rule was restored to the Sudan.
Abbas II became very hostile to the British as his reign drew on, and, by 1911, was considered by Lord Kitchener to be a "wicked little Khedive" worthy of deposition.
In 1914, when World War I broke out, the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers, which were at war with the Allied nations, including Britain. As Egypt was still a nominal vassal state of the Ottoman Empire, the British proclaimed a Sultanate of Egypt and abolished the Khedivate on 5 November 1914.[8] Abbas II, who supported the Central Powers and was in Vienna for a state visit, was deposed from the Khedivate throne in his absence by the enforcement of the British military authorities in Cairo and was banned from returning to Egypt. He was succeeded by his uncle Hussein Kamel, who took the title of Sultan on 19 December 1914. Abbas II finally accepted the new order of things and formally abdicated on 12 May 1931, spending the rest of his life in Geneva, Switzerland, until his death on 19 December 1944 (on the 30th anniversary of Hussein Kamel's reign.)
During the khedivate, the standard form of Egyptian currency was the Egyptian pound.[13] Because of the gradual European domination of the Egyptian economy, the khedivate adopted the gold standard in 1885.[14]
Although the adoption of modern industrial techniques was begun under Muhammad Ali in the early 19th century, the policy was continued under the khedives.
Machines were imported into Egypt,[13] and, by the abolition of the khedivate in 1914, the textile industry had become the most prominent one in the nation.
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