Kamboja-Pala Dynasty of Bengal

Articles related to Kambojas
Etymology
Kamboja Location
in Indian Literature

The Kamboja-Pala Dynasty ruled parts of Bengal in the 10th to 11th centuries CE, gradually gaining independence from their former liege lords, the Palas.

Contents

Origins

During the last centuries BCE, many clans of the Kambojas entered India in alliance the with Sakas, Pahlavas, Yavanas and spread into Sindhu, Saurashtra, Malwa, Rajasthan, Punjab and Surasena.[1][2] The Kamboh Darwaza in the city of Meerut is named after the Kambojas. An offshoot of these Kambojas moved eastwards and entered Bengal, Bihar and Orissa and in 10th century, they founded a large empire in north-west Bengal.[3] Kamboja chieftains were employed by the Pala dynasty following Devapala's conquests due to the lack of native cavalry in Bengal[4]

Ancient sources on Kamboja Rule in Bengal

There are several ancient inscriptions which attest Kamboja rule in Bengal and Bihar. The most important sources are:

Dinajpore Pillar Inscription

The Dinajpur Pillar Inscription makes mention of a certain Kamboja king called the Kambojanvaya Gaudapati (i.e. lord of Gauda, born in Kamboja family). The Pillar Inscription was originally established in a Siva Temple which was built by Kambojanvaya Gaudapati in Gauda country. But during Muslim rule, the Pillar was brought to Bangar about 40 miles east of Gauda. During 18th century AD, the Pillar was further moved to Dinajpore by Maharaja Ram Nath and as a result, the inscription came to be known as Dinajpore Pillar Inscription.[5]

According Dr R. C. Majumdar, Kunjarghatavarsheyan was a personal name of Kambojanvaya Gaudapati, but that may also imply his epithet. The imperial title Gaudapati (Gaudeshawara) as testified by the Dinajpore Pillar Inscription is obviously his imperial title. Term Kambojanvaya implies that he belonged to the Kamboja lineage. The inscription further reveals that Kambojanvaya Gaudapati was a devotee of lord Siva. The date of this record has been shown to be 888 Saka, though this is stated to be doubtful (Dr R. C. Majimdar). Scholars state that the Dinajpore Pillar Inscription belongs to the second half of 10th c AD.[6]

Irda Copper Plate (Tamrapatra)

Irda Copper plate (Irda Tamarapatra) is another very important source on the Kamboja-Pala dynasty of Bengal. The Copper Plate was discovered in 1931 from a landlord named Mrityunjaya Narayan Prahraj of Irda, District Balasor in Orissa. The Inscription was edited by Dr N. G. Majumdar and published with his comments in 1934 in the Epigraphia Indica.[7] Irda Copper plate is written in Sanskrit tongue and has 49 lines of text written in ancient Bengali script. The Vamsa or the tribal identity of the rulers mentioned in the Irda Copper Plate is specifically stated to be Kamboja-Vamsha-Tilaka (i.e. Ornament of the Kamboja family or Glory of the Kamboja tribe).[8] Like the Dinajpore Pillar Inscriptions, the Irda Copper plate is also thought to belong to the second half of 10th c AD (Dr N. G. Majumdar, Dr R. C. Majumdar). Hence the scholar community believes that the Kambojanvaya Gaudapati of Dinajpore Pillar Inscriptions and the Kambojavamshatilaka Paramasaugata Maharajadhiraja parameshvara paramabhattaraka Rajyapala of Kamboja-Pala dynasty of Irda Copper Plate Inscriptions refers to the same Kamboja family. But whereas the Dinajpur Pillar inscriptions refer just to one Kamboja ruler eith appellation as "Kambojanvaya Gaudapati", the Irda Copper plate, on the other hand, mentions generation after generation of the Kamboja-Pala kings of Bengal i.e. Rajyapala, Narayanapala and Nayapala etc. The Kamboja-Pala kings of Irda Copper plate had ruled north-west Bengal in 10/11th c.[9]

Bangar Grant of Mahipala I

Bangar Charter[10] of Mahipala I is the third very important ancient source of Kamboja rule in Bengal. The charter asserts that Mahipala had re-conquered nearly the whole of north and east Bengal "after defeating the usurpers who had seized his ancestral kingdom".[11] The same verse has been repeated in the Aamgaachhi Charter of Vigrahapala-3. But "Who were the usurpers the inscription does not tell, but other evidences indicate that the rulers belonging to the Kamboja family were in possession of the north and west Bengal".[12] Scholars believe that Mahipala's Charter alludes to the seizing of the northern parts of Bengal by Kamboja dynasty from the Gopala II or Vigrahapala II of the Pala dynasty, which the great king Mahipala I claims to have won back by the force of his arms[13]

See: Kamboj in ancient Inscriptions for more information: Kambojas in ancient Inscriptions#Bengal Inscriptions

Extent of Kamboja Empire

No definite information is available on the precise geographical area of the Kamboja-Pala kingdom of Bengal. According to Irda Copper plate evidence, the Kamboja-Pala kingdom definitely comprised Varadhmana-Bhukti Mandala (modern Burdman division) and Dandabhukti Mandala within the Kamboja empire. The Dandabhukti division is believed to have comprised southern and south-western parts of district Midnapore as well as the lower parts of river Suvaranrekha in district Balasore. Evidence from Dinajpore Pillar Inscription attests that the Gauda country also formed parts of Kamboja-Pala kingdom. But as long as we do not include northern Ladha (Radha or W. Bengal) in Kamboja-Pala empire, the region does not constitute one viable political entity. Hence it appears likely that northern parts of Radha may also formed parts of Kamboja-Pala kingdom. Dr R. C. Majumdar says that Gauda and Radha both formed parts of Kamboja-Pala empire [14] During second half of the 10th century, Chandella king Yashovarman invaded the Palas and the Kambojas and he claims to have conquered Gauda and Mithila.[15] It is also stated that Chandela chief Dhanga of Jejabhukti, the successor of Yashovarman, had invaded Radha towards the end of 10th century AD. As a consequence, the Kamboja power in the north Bengal received a severe jolt.[16] This political scenario enabled the Pala king Mahipala I to re-conquer Gauda from the Kambojas.[17] The last king of the Kambojas was Dharamapala who continued to rule Dandabhukti in the first quarter of 11th century AD.[18] The Capital of the Kamboja Pala kingdom is stated to be Pryangu which has not been identified yet,[19] though some scholars tend to identify the same with an old village known as Pingvani located in Garvet Thana.[20]

Known Kamboja Kings of Bengal

We know the names of three Kamboja rulers of the Kamboja Pala family for sure viz. Rajyapala, Narayanapala and Nayapala. The Charter (Copper Plate Inscription) was issued by Kamboja king Nayapala wherein he and his father are given the imperial titles like Parameshevara, Paramabhattacharya and Maharajadhiraja. The Copper Plate Inscription also attests that the founder of the Kamboja Pala dynasty was king Rajyapala. He has been referred to as Kambojavamshatilaka Paramasaugata Maharajadhiraja parameshvara paramabhattAraka-Rajyapala. This proves that this line of kings belonged to the Kamboja lineage. The second king is Narayanapala who was son of Rajayapala. Narayanapala was succeeded by his younger brother Nayapala, the author of the Irda Copper plate. Dr R. C. Majumdar states that the expression Kunjarghatavarshan of the Dinajpore Pillar Inscription indicates that Kunjarghatavarshan was personal name of Kambojanvaya Gaudapati of the Dinajpore Pillar Inscription. If this is so, then this Kambojanvaya Gaudapati is the fourth known Kamboja king of Kamboja dynasty of Bengal. Some scholars however believe that the Kambojanvaya Gaudapati of the Dinajpore Pillar Inscriptions is same as Kambojavamshatilaka Rajyapala of the Irda Copper plate. This does not seem to be true since Rajyapala of the Irda Copper plate is described as devotee of Buddha (Parama-saugata) where as Kambojanvaya Gaudapati of Dinajpore Pillar Inscriptions claims in his own inscription to be a Siva devotee. It may however be possible that Kambojanvaya Gaudapati is same as Kamboja king Nayapala of the Irda Copper plate since king Nayapala also claims to be a Saivite (Siva devotee) in the Irda Copper plate. The last known ruler of the Kamboja Pala dynasty is stated to be king Dharamapala who ruled in Dandabhukti in first quarter of 11th century AD.[21]

Pala Dynasty vs Kamboja-Pala Dynasty

Curiously, there are several similarities between the Kamboja Pala ruling family and the so-called Pala ruling family of Bengal: e.g.

Based on these startling similarities, some scholars have gone to the extent of stating that the Pala dynasty and the Kamboja-Pala Dynasty of Irda Copper plate & Dinajpore Pillar Inscription is one and the same dynasty. But if this is really so, then the inescapable conclusion which must follow is that the unified Kamboja/Pala dynasty of Bengal must belong to the Kamboja lineage.[23][24]

It is very curious to note that whereas the identity of the Kamboja Pala rulers of Bengal has been referred to twice and is indisputably connected to the Kamboja ethnicity, that of the Palas has nowhere been specifically stated in any of the Pala traditions in numerous of their Grants, Charters and Inscriptions (Dr D. C. Sircar). According to Manjuśree Mūlakalpa, Gopala I was a Śudra.[25][26] Balla-Carita says that "The Palas were low-born Ksatriyas". Tibetan Historian Taranatha Lama, in his "History of Buddhism in India" and Ghanarama, in his "Dharma Mangala", (both of 16th century CE), also give the same story.[27][28] Arabic accounts tell us that Palas were not kings of noble origin.[29] According to Abu Fazal (Ain-i-Akbari), Palas were Kayasthas.[30] Khalimpur Plate of Dharmapala, son of Gopala I (the founder of the dynasty), states that Gopala was a son of a warrior (Khanditarat) Vapyata and grandson of a highly educated (Saryavidyavadat) Dayitavishnu.[31] Ramachrita of Sandhyakaranandi attests Pala king Ramapala as a Kshatriya,[32] but in another portion of the same text, Dharmapala is described as Smudrakula-dipa,[33] though, the reason why the origin of the Palas has been ascribed to the Sea (Samudrakula) remains obsecure.[34] In the Udaya-sundari-katha, a Champu-Kavya, written by Soddhala in the eleventh century, Pala king Dharmapala is said to have belonged to the family of Mandhata of the Ikshvaku line which is known to belong to solar race.[35][36] It is also stated that they were born of a Ksatriya mother.[37] "All these hear-says practically have no value at all for discussion".[38]

The Kamauli Copper Plate inscription of king Vaidyadeva of Kamarupa (Assam) [39] indisputably connects the Palas to the Kshatriyas of "Mihirasya vamsa" (Surya lineage).[40]

Since Mihira means Sun or Sun worshipper, the expression Mihirasya implies connected with or relating to the Sun or Sun Worship (Sanskrit Mitra, Persian Mithira == > Mihira = Sun). According to Bhavishya Purana, the Mihira lineage originated from the union of Nishkubha, daughter of Rsi Rijihva and the Sun (Mihira).[41] From this wedlock was born a sage called Zarashata, who apparently is Zoroaster of the Iranian traditions. Mihirasya Vamsa means Mihira Vamsa which is also found written as Mihirkula i.e. lineage of the Sun-worshippers. The reference to Mihirasya vamsa as being the lineage of the Palas of Bengal as attested independently by the Kamauli Grant of king Vaidyadeva of Assam holds a probable clue that the Palas may have come from the Sun-Worshipping lineage i.e. Iranian or Zoroastrian line of the Kambojas.[42][43]

The fact that Gopala I, the founder of the so-called Pala dynasty was a Buddhist and that he has also been branded as a Śudra king [44] may also carry a clue to his connections to the Kamboja lineage since the Kambojas were also predominantly Buddhists in post-Christian times and have also been branded as Vrishalas (degraded Kshatriyas or Śudras) in several Hindu texts like Manu Smriti, Mahabharata, Harivamsha and numerous Puranas.[45] Also the fact that Gopala I's grandfather was a learned man, his father a warrior, and king Gopala himself was elected to the throne of Bengal, he therefore, was definitely not initially of a distinguished royal blood from the Hindu point of view. Some surmise that he may have been from a Brahmin lineage[46] but since the Palas are called Śudras as well as Ksatriyas, these references qualify them more as the Indo-Iranian Kambojas than of any other lineage. The ancient Indian traditions also incidentally attest the scholarship and learning of the Kambojas who excelled in education and produced many outstanding teachers and sages in ancient and medieval times. Scholars further note that Vapyata, the grand father of Gopala I, had come into east from the north-west Punjab,[47] which if true, definitely means Gandhara/Kamboja region.

It is notable that one section of scholars like Dr N. G. Majumdar,[48] Chandra Chakrabarty,[49] E. Vasey Westmacott [50] etc. consider that the so-called Pala Rulers of Bengal (authors of Pala Empire) actually belonged to Kamboja race. Dr N. G. Majumdar was the original editor of Irda Copper plate, and had initially thought that the Pala Dynasty and the Kambboja Pala dynasty were two separate dynasties, but later on, had modified his views in light of new discovery which demonstrated that king Rajyapala-II of the so-called Pala dynasty, just like king Rajyapala of the Irda Copper plate, was found as adorned with religious epithet of Parama-saugata (devoted Buddhist) as well as the imperial title of the Maharajadhiraja.[51] Based on this new evidence and earlier similarities, Dr N. G. Majumdar, had accordingly changed his views and got inclined to identify the Pala Dynasty of Bengal with the Kambojas, and thereby, also dispelling the earlier views on the origin of the Pala kings of Bengal.[52]

Dr H. C. Ray however, has advised a policy of 'wait' till the discovery of more powerful evidence before we can say that the Pala dynasty and the Kamboja Pala Dynasty belonged to the Kamboja race. He oberserved: "I can only suggest that we must wait for more definite proof before we can say that the Palas were Kambojas".[53] Dr Ramananda Chatterjee writes that "as regards the Kamboja origin of the Pala, one cannot be definite in the present state of our knowledge".[54] Dr J. L. Kamboj cautions that if we identify Rajyapala of the Pala Dynasty with the Rajyapala of the 'Irda Copper Plate', then we will have no option other than to accept that the Pala Dynasty of Bengal had sprang from the Kamboja race.[55] Dr R. C. Majumdar advises that if we identify the Kamboja-vamsa-tilaka Rajyapala of the Irda Copper plate with the Rajyapala of the Pala dynasty, then we must also accept that after Rajyapla, the Pala empire had split up into two.[56] Dr R. C. Majumdar further advises that "although the presumption about the identity (of the Palas with the Kambojas) is certainly a reasonable one, the evidence in favor of it can not be regarded as conclusive..".[57]

In spite of the above, the probabilities of unification of two dynasties and their connection to Kamboja lineage seem to have tremendously increased though.

New Possible Interpretation of Dinajpore Inscription

The Rajyapala of Irda Copper plate has been referred to as Kambojavamshatilaka (i.e. belonging to the Kamboja lineane). If he and Rajyapala II of the Pala dynasty is one historical personage, then one shall have accept that the Palas dynasty originated from the Kambojas. The only other source referring to the Kamboja rulers in Bengal is the Dinajpore Pillar Inscription which refers to a ruler Kambojanvaya Gaudapati and its date has been fixed to later half of 10th century. Up till recently, the scholars believed that the Kambojas could not have won Gauda without defeating the Palas of Bengal hence it was assumed that Kambojanvaya Gaudapati came as some foreign invader from the northern hills and wrested north and western Bengal from the Paslas. If it is proved that the Palas and the Kambojas are one people, the Dinajpore Pillar shall have to be interpreted differently [58] i.e. . if the Palas and Kambojas are unified, then Kambojanvaya Gaudapati of the Dinajpore Pillar inscription shall have to be accepted as a representative of the Palas, and there shall be no need to assert that the Kambojas came as foreign invaders from the northern hills and wrested the Gauda from the Palas. The only basis of the so-called usurpation of Bengal by the Kambojas is the vague statement of king Mahpala I, the author of Bangar Grant[10] which asserts that Mahipala had re-conquered nearly the whole of north and east Bengal "after defeating the usurpers who had seized his ancestral kingdom"[59] but "Who were the usurpers the inscription does not tell but other evidences indicate that the rulers belonging to the Kamboja family were in possession of the north and west Bengal.[12] Scholars have only speculated that Mahipala's Charter alludes to 'seizing of the northern parts of Bengal from the Gopala II or Vigrahapala II by the Kambojas', which the great king claims to have won back by the force of his arms.[60] If the two dynasties are united, then this may mean that Rajyapala II had three sons: Gopala II, Narayanpala and Nayapala.[61] Gopala II inherited Magadha and northern Bengal while Narayanapala got rest of the empire including western Bengal. Narayanapala was thus rival and competitor of Gopala. Narayanapala was succeeded by his younger brother Nayapala. These two sons of Rajayapala, in all probability, were the usurpers of the ancestral land of Mahipala I, the grand son of Gopala II. This may be the reason as to why these two kings do not find any mention in the main genealogy of the Palas which was continued by Mahipala I onwards. It is also interesting to note that the genealogy of rulers mentioned in the Irda Copper plate of king Nayapala does not go beyond Rajyapala.[62][63]

Religion of Kamboja rulers of Bengal

The Kambojanvaya Gaudapati of Dinajpore Pillar Inscriptions is stated to be a builder of Siva temple and therefore was devotee of Siva. He is said to be a great bestower of the charities. Kambojavamsatilaka Rajayapala, the first king of the Irda Copper plate is referred to as Parama-saugata (devotee of Buddha). The third ruler Narayanapala Kamboja is stated to be a devotee of god Vishnu. King Nayapala Kamboja, the author of Irda Copper plate is known to have practiced Siva cult. There is no information on the Kamboja ruler Dharamapala, but it appears likely that he may have also been a Vedic follower i.e. either Saivite or a Vishnu devotee. The Irda Copper plate has references to Hindu gods, high rising temple buildings as well as to the sacred smokes rising from the Yagya fires into the skies. This again alludes to the Hinduism of the Pala Kambojas. Irda Copper plate also makes special references to the Purohits, Kritivajyas, Dharmagyas and other holy officials. Thus we find that the Kamboja kings of Bengal were mostly Vedic Hindus, of course, with the exception of king Rajyapala. Mention is made of grants of lands and villages to the Purohits in the Burdwan district of east Bengal. According to Prof R. C. Majumdar: "More significant, however, is the inclusion of Purohits in the land grants of the Kamboja, Varman and Sena kings of Bengal. It indicates the great importance was attached to religious and social aspects of administration during rules of these dynasties which were all followers of orthodox Hinduism." (History of Bengal, Vol I., p 281, Dr R. C. Majumdar</ref> Dr B. N. Sen says that the Buddhism which had followers in the early Pala and Candra rulers was probably on the decline in Bengal during 10th c AD. On the other hand, the Vedic religion was on the rise. Since the Kamboja Pala kings of Bengal were mostly Vedic Hindus, hence they must have got full support from their subject which must have helped them raise a powerful empire in Bengal.[64]

Kambojas in Caste System of Bengal

In the ancient caste classification in Bengal, there are references to people who came as invaders from northwest or accompanied the invaders. These people have been described as Mlechchas in the brahmanical Caste System in Bengal. Ancient Sanskrit and Pali texts and inscriptions profusely attest the Kambojas as a Mlechcha tribe of Uttarapatha or Udichya division belonging to Indo-Iranian or Scytho-Aryan and not to the Mongolian stock. The north-westerners including the Kambojas, Sakas, Hunas, Yavanas, Abhiras, Khasas, Sabaras, Turushakas, Suhmas etc. have all been labelled as outsiders, foreigners or Mlechchas within the Bengali society and therefore were left outside the Caste Classification of ancient Bengal. [1] Compare also: Part-II: VI. Ancient peoples of Bengal: [2].[65]

Evidence on Later Kamboja Rulers in Bengal

There is a literary evidence which attests one Kamboja king known as Jagan Nath ruling in Bengal as late as that 16th century AD. King Jagan Nath is stated to have patronized a Brahmana scholar Sura Mishra who had composed Jagannathaprakasa, a Smriti Granth in honor of this Kamboja king:

Ashesh.Kambojakula.vatansah Shri Jagana Natha iti parsidhah
Akaryad dharmanibandhmaytam dhradhipaiapayairkablai nreshe[66]

This shows that the Kamboja rule in some parts of Bengal must have continued, as late as 16th century AD.

Opinions of Some Scholars

Dr V. A. Smith:

Dr Benjamin Walker:

Dr P. C. Baghci:

Dr B. C. Law:

B. G. Karlsson:

Hasna Jasimuddin Mouddud:

R. R. Diwarkar:

Alternative View (in line with view of R. R. Diwarkar)

A Short History of Bengal

Dr Debala Mitra:

Dr A. D. Pusalkar:

Dr R. C. Majumdar:

Airavat Singh

Dr. H. C. Ray:

Dr H. Chander Raychaudhury:

Nagendra Nath Vasu"

Dr Jogindra Ghosh:

Dr J. L. Kamboj:

Dr B. R. Chattetjee:

See also

Middle kingdoms of India
Timeline: Northwestern India Northern India Southern India

 6th century BCE
 5th century BCE
 4th century BCE

 3rd century BCE
 2nd century BCE

 1st century BCE
 1st century CE


 2nd century
 3rd century
 4th century
 5th century
 6th century
 7th century
 8th century
 9th century
10th century
11th century

(Persian rule)
(Greek conquests)



(Islamic conquests)

(Islamic Empire)






References

  1. ^ a b Ancient Kamboja, people and the Country, 1981, pp 296-309, 310, Dr J. L. Kamboj; The Kambojas Through the Ages, 2005, pp 158-162, 168-69, S Kirpal Singh
  2. ^ cf: "Along with Sakas, numerous tribes of Kambojas had crossed Hindukush and spread into whole of north India especially into Punjab and Uttar Pradesh etc. Mahabharata (12.102.5) specifically attests that Kambojas and Yavanas conquered Mathura country. The Kambojas also find mention in the Mathura Lion Capitol Inscriptions issued by Saka Mahakshatrapa Rajuvala" (India And The world 1964 p 154 by Dr Buddha Parkash).
  3. ^ Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, p 311, Dr J. L. Kamboj
  4. ^ RC Majumdar, History of Bengal, Dacca, 1943, pp 133-134
  5. ^
    Durvararivaruthini.paramthaney danai cha vidhyadhraih (1)
    Sanandamdiviyasaya maragangunahgram graho gyatai (2)
    Kambojanvaya Gaudapatina natenendu moleryam (3)
    Parsado nirmaya kunjarghattavarsheynh bhubhushanh."(4)
    (Wording of Dinajpore Pillar Inscriptions)
    TRANSLATION:
    "In the battle field, the Kamboja Raja was a warrior like Durga (Chandi) and in making charity gifts he was like vidhyadharas. His honor and glory was sung and praised in the whole of India as well as in the Swargaloka (heaven). The Kamboja had wiped out all his enemies from the face of earth. This Pillars inscription was raised Kamboja to commemorate his glorious victory over the ruler of Gauda country. The Kamboja raja raised magnificent temple in honor of lord Siva. In so doing, the Kamboja made himself so popular and dear to his subjects like the ornaments are dear to the women." (References: Indian Antiquary, Vol I, 1872, pp 127ff, 195ff, 227ff; Journal of Asiatic Society of Bengal, (N.S.), Vol VII, 1911, pp 615-619; Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, p 3-4, Dr J. L Kamboj. These Kamboj People, 1979, p 182, K. S. Dardi; Kamboj Itihaas, 1972, pp 89-90, H. S. Thind)
  6. ^ History and Culture of Indian People, The Age of Imperial Kanauj, p 54, 1964, Dr. R. C. Majumdar and Dr A. D. Pusalkar
  7. ^ Epigraphia Indica, XXII, 1933-34, pp 150-158, Dr N. G. Majumdar
  8. ^ Kambojavamshatilaka Paramasaugata Maharajadhiraja parameshvara paramabhattAraka Rajyapala
  9. ^ Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, p 315, Dr J. L Kamboj; Ancient India, 1956, p 382-83, Dr R. K. Mukerjee, The Kambojas Through the Ages, 2005, p 208-210, S Kirpal Singh
  10. ^ a b Inscription No 5
  11. ^
    hataskalavipashah sangre bahudarppad
    anudhikrit vilupatan rayamasadhya pitram
    nihitcharanpadamo bhubhutan murdhin tasmad
    abhavadvanipalah shrimahipaladehah || 11 ||
    (verse 11, Inscription No 5
  12. ^ a b History and Culture of Indian People, The Age of Imperial Kanauj, p 55, Dr A. D. Pusalkar, Dr R. C. Majumdar; The struggle for Empire, p 24, Dr A. D. Pusalkar, Dr R. C. Majumdar
  13. ^ See: Candellas of Jejakbhukti, 2003, p 48, R.K. Dikshit; Ancient India, 2003, p 651, Dr V. D. Mahajan; History of Bengal, I, 133; Dr R. C. Majumdar, The Dynastic History of Northern India, II, 676, Dr H. C. Ray; Some Historical Aspects of the Inscriptions of Bengal, p 399, Dr B. C. Sen; Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, p 312, Dr J. L. Kamboj; Bengal: Past and Present, P 77, by Calcutta Historical Society; Islam in Bangladesh, 1992, p 6, U A B Razia Akt Banu.
  14. ^ History of Ancient Bengal, 1971, p 127, Dr Ramesh Chandra Majumdar - Bengal (India).
  15. ^ History and Culture of Indian People, Age of Imperial Kanauj, p 85, Dr A. D. Pusalkar, Dr R. C. Majumdar
  16. ^ Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, p 315, Dr J. L. Kamboj
  17. ^ Ancient India, 2003, p 651, Dr V. D. Mahajan
  18. ^ Ancient Kamboja, Peoole and the Country, 1981, p 315-16, Dr J. L. Kamboj; Decline of the Kingdom of Magadha, p 413, B. P. Sinha; Some Historical Aspects of the Inscriptions of Bengal, p 379-80, B. C. Sen etc
  19. ^ Journal of Asiatic Society of Bengal, VII, 619; History and Culture of Indian People, The Age of Imperial Kanauj, p 54, 1964, Dr. R. C. Majumdar and Dr A. D. Pusalkar
  20. ^ Epigraphia Indiaca, Vol XXIV, p 46,Dr J. C. Ghosh; quoted by Dr J. L. Kamboj in Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country. 1981, p 334.
  21. ^ Some Historical Aspects of the Inscriptions of Bengal: Pre-Muhammadan Epochs, 1942, p 380, 383, Dr Benoychandra Sen - Bengal (India); Journal of the Varendra Research Museum, Vol.1-4 1972-1975/1976, p 109, Varendra Research Museum - Bangladesh; Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, pp 318, 316 etc; History and Culture of Indian People, The Age of Imperial Kanauj, p 54, 1964, Dr. R. C. Majumdar and Dr A. D. Pusalkar; Decline of the Kingdom of Magadha, p 413, B. P. Sinha; Some Historical Aspects of the Inscriptions of Bengal, p 379-80, B. C. Sen
  22. ^ Ancient Indian History and Civilization, 1999, p 280, Sailendra Nath Sen.
  23. ^ Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, pp 317-18, Dr J. L. Kamboj
  24. ^ The Kambojas Through the Ages, 2005, p 213, S Kirpal Singh. This conclusion is so simple since the ethnicity of the rulers of Irda Copper plate as well as the one in the Dinajpore Pillar Inscripptions is unequivocally stated as "Kamboja" while that of the so-called Pala dynasty has nowhere been identified in any of its own numerous inscriptions.
  25. ^ The History and Culture of the Pālas of Bengal and Bihar, Cir. 750 A.D.-cir ..., 1939, p 37, Jhunu Bagchi - History.
  26. ^ See also: Indian Antiquary, Vol IV, 1875, pp 365-66; Corpus of Bengal Inscriptions, Mukerjee and Maity, p 11; Caste and Chronology of the Pala kings of Bengal, J. C. Ghosh, The Indian Historical Quarterly, IX, 1983, pp 487-90; The Caste of the Palas, The Indian Culture, Vol IV, 1939, pp 113-14, B Chatterji; Social Change in Modern India, 1995, p 9, M N Srinivas; Modern India: An Interpretive Antholog, 1971, p 115, Thomas R. Metcalf - History.
  27. ^ Indian Culture, 1934, p 113, Indian Research Institute - India; Paradise of Gods, 1966, p 174, Qamarud Din Ahmed - West Pakistan (Pakistan).
  28. ^ "The Palas were at first known as Sudras. With the rise of their power they began to claim a Ksatria lineage"(Indian Culture, 1934, p 113, Indian Research Institute - India.
  29. ^ Akhbar, p 13, Sauveget; Studies in The Geography of the Ancient and Medieval India, 1971, p 145, Dr D. C. Sircar.
  30. ^ Ibid, Jhunnu Bagchi.
  31. ^ Epigraphia Indica, Vol IV, p 243ff; Gaudalekhamala, p 9, A. K. Maitreya.
  32. ^ Ramachrita I.17.
  33. ^ Ibid, Jhunnu Bagchi.
  34. ^ Some Historical Aspects of the Inscriptions of Bengal: Pre-Muhammadan Epochs, 1942, p 307, Dr Benoychandra Sen - Bengal (India).
  35. ^ A Socio-political and Economic Study, Northern India, 1990, p 63.
  36. ^ Prabha Chandra Sen has tried to reconcile the two theories of the "Solar origin" and "Samudrakula (Ocean) origin" by saying that Samudra was son of the illustrious Pauranic king Sagara of Kosala (A Socio-political and Economic Study, Northern India, 1990, p 63, Jai Narayan Asopa). But son of Sagara was Asamanja and not Samudra (See: Genealogy of Ikshvaku in Ancient Indian Historical Tradition, 1922, p 147, Dr P. E. Pargiter). Moreover, why did the Pala lineage not start from king Sagara, father of Samudra, who was very illustrious in the line of the Ikshvakus, rather than the little known Samudra? Obviously, the hypothesis is unconvincing and has no value at all.
  37. ^ Indian Culture, 1934, p 113, Indian Research Institute.
  38. ^ Op cit, Jhunnu Bagchi, p 37.
  39. ^ See: Gaudalekhamala, pp 127-146, A. K. Maitreya.
  40. ^ See some refs: Epigraphia Indica, XXIV, p 43, Dr N. G. Majumdar; The History and Culture of the Pālas of Bengal and Bihar, Cir. 750 A.D.-cir ..., 1003, p 37, Jhunu Bagchi - History; The Dacca University Studies, 1935, p 131, University of Dacca; Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, p 316, Dr J. L. Kamboj; Late Classical India, 1988, p 25, Mainak Kumar Bose - India; History of Ancient Bengal, 1971, p 427, Ramesh Chandra Majumdar - Bengal (India).
  41. ^ Dr D. R. Bhandarkar, Dr Buddha Parkash.
  42. ^ Bryant cites Hesychius (6th century CE): "MiqraV o hlioV para PersaiV" ("Mithras, the sun of Persia") and "MiqrhV o protoV en PersaiV QeoV" ("Mithres, the first god in Persia."). Hesychius thus confirms not only the solar nature but also the /Persian/ origin of Mithra, still known in his day.
  43. ^ The priests of Mithra, and of Iranian Sun and Fire worship in general, were the Magi or Magas. The Magas entered India on a number of occasions over a period of centuries, prior to and during the common era. At this point, Indian Sun worship became increasingly formalized, with elaborate rituals, temples and images sprouting up and from the 6th century CE onward, royal names began to have "Mihira" (Mithra) in them after a millennium of integration (or reintegration) into Indian culture.
  44. ^ Op cit., p 37, Jhunu Bagchi; Indian Antiquary, Vol IV, 1875, pp 365-66; Corpus of Bengal Inscriptions, Mukerjee and Maity, p 11; Caste and Chronology of the Pala kings of Bengal, J. C. Ghosh, The IHQ, IX, 1983, pp 487-90; The Caste of the Palas, The Indian Culture, Vol IV, 1939, pp 113-14, B Chatterji; Social Change in Modern India, 1995, p 9, M N Srinivas; Modern India: An Interpretive Antholog, 1971, p 115, Thomas R. Metcalf - History.
  45. ^ Manusmriti X.43-44; Mahabharata 13.33.20-21, Harivamsa 14.1-19 etc etc.
  46. ^ Al-Hind, the Making of the Indo-Islamic World, 1990, p 265, André Wink; History of Medieval India, 1940, p 20, fn, Ishwari Prasad - India.
  47. ^ Ref: The Place of Assam in the History and Civilization of India, 1970, p 20, Dr S. K. Chatterjee, Published by Dept. of Publication, University of Gauhati.
  48. ^ See: The Modern Review, 1937, pp 323-24, N. G. Majumdar; See also: Quotation Dr H. C. Ray, Indian Historical Quarterly, XV-4, December 1939, p 110, fn 11; Also quoted by Dr J. L. Kamboja in his Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, p 323; Quoted in: 'The Modern Review, 1907, p 440, by Ramananda Chatterjee - India; See also: Indian Historical Quarterly, 1963, p 509.
  49. ^ See: The Racial History of India, 1944, p 834, Chandra Chakraberty - Ethnology.
  50. ^ The Calcutta Review, The Dinagepoor Raj, 1872, 206, E. Vasey Westmacott; See also: The Calcutta Review, Pal Kings of Bengal, 1874, pp 74, 91-99, E. Vasey Westmacott.
  51. ^ Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, p 316-17; Dr J. L. Kamboj; See also the Quotation of Dr H. C. Ray, Indian Historical Quarterly, XV-4, December 1939, p 110, fn 11, quoted by Dr J. L. Kamboja in his Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, p 323.
  52. ^ Quoted in: 'The Modern Review, 1907, p 440, by Ramananda Chatterjee - India.
  53. ^ See: The Indian Historical Quarterly, 1963, p 511; Indian Historical Quarterly, XV-4, December 1939, p 110, fn 11, Dr H. C. Ray
  54. ^ The Modern Review, 1907, p 324, Ramananda Chatterjee - India.
  55. ^ Prācīna Kamboja, jana aura janapada =: Ancient Kamboja, people and country, 1981, p 356, Dr Jiyālāla Kāmboja, Dr Satyavarti Sastri - Kamboja (Pakistan); See also: The Modern Review, 1907, p 324, Dr Ramananda Chatterjee.
  56. ^ The History of Bengal, Vol I, p 127 Dr R. C. Majumdar
  57. ^ History of Ancient Bengal, 1971, p 172, Dr R. C. Majumdar - Bengal (India); cf: Dacca University Studies, Vol I, No 2, p 131; ff.
  58. ^ The Early History of Bengal: From the Earliest Times to the Muslim Conquest, 1939, p 81, Pramode Lal Paul - Bengal (India).
  59. ^ Anudhikrit vilupatan Rayamasadhya pitram……..verse 11, Inscription No 5
  60. ^ See: Ancient India, 2003, p 651, Dr V. D. Mahajan; History of Bengal, I, 133; Dr R. C. Majumdar, The Dynastic History of Northern India, II, 676, Dr H. C. Ray; Some Historical Aspects of the Inscriptions of Bengal, p 399, Dr B. C. Sen; Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, p 318-19, Dr J. L. Kamboj
  61. ^ The Early History of Bengal: From the Earliest Times to the Muslim Conquest, 1938, p 82, Pramode Lal Paul.
  62. ^ Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, p 317-18, Dr J. L. Kamboj
  63. ^ Dr D. C. Sircar also favors unification of the two dynasties. He also suggests that Narayanapala of the Irda Copper plate was a brother of Gopala II, the inheritor to the throne after Rajyapala. He was therefore a rival and competitor of Gopala. Narayanapala had carved out a principality for himself out of the kingdom of Gopala (referenced by Dr J. L. Kamboj in his above cited book)
  64. ^ Some Historical Aspects of the Inscriptions of Bengal, p 378-79, B. C. Sen
  65. ^ The Author, Annapurna Chattopadhyaya, is probably not right here to include the Kambojas among the Extraneous Tribal Communities from North-east. Rather, they should have been included among the Tribal Communities from North-west which group comprises the Sakas, Yavanas, Hunas, Khasas, Abhiras, Turukshakas with whom the Kambojas are always found associated in numerous ancient Sanskrit texts. Doubtless, the Kambojas belong to the Uttarapatha as Mahabharata, Ramayana, Puranas and other ancient texts abundantly show. See Kamboja Location
  66. ^ (Notices of Sanskrit MSS., Vol V, No 1790;, R. L. Mitra, Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, p 208, Dr J. L. Kamboj )
  67. ^ Early History of India, 1967, Dr V. A. Smith
  68. ^ Hindu World Vol I, p 520 by Benjamin Walker).
  69. ^ Journal, 1943, p 110, Greater India Society - India; India & Central Asia, p 117, Dr P. C. Bagchi; Racial Affinities of Early North Indian Tribes, 1973, p 76, Dr Sudhakar Chattopadhyaya - Ethnology India.
  70. ^ Dr. R. D. Bannerjee, Vengalar Itihaasa, p 182
  71. ^ Dr. R. D. Bannerjee, Vengalar Itihaasa, p 184
  72. ^ Refs about Dr. R. P. Chanda appears in: Vangar Itihaasa, p 205, Dr R. D. Banerjee
  73. ^ Some Kshatrya Tribes of Ancient India, 1924, p 251, Dr B. C. Law)
  74. ^ Contested Belonging: an Indigenous People's struggle in Sub-Himalayan Bengal, 2000, p 202, B. G. Karlsson.
  75. ^ South Asia: Eastern Himalya Culture, Ecology and People: Ancient Heritage and Future Prospects, Hasna Jasimuddin Mouddud
  76. ^ Bihar Through the Ages, G. Ed. R. R. Diwarkar, 1958, p 312).
  77. ^ "The view that Nepali Traditions apply name Kamboja Desha to Tibet is based on the statement made by Foucher, [Iconographie bouddhique pp 134-135] on the authority of Nepali Pandit of B.H Hdgson. But it is supported by two manuscripts [No 7768 & 7777] described in the Catalogue of Sanskrit and Prakrit Mss in the library of India Office Vol II, Part II". [Dr R. C. majumdar, History of Bebgal, I, 191, Dist Gazeteer [Rajashahi], 1915, p 26; Some Historical Aspects of the Inscriptions of Bengal, Dr B. C. Sen, p 342, fn 1]
  78. ^ Brahama Purana 53/16; See also: The Indian Historical Quarterly, Vol.VI, No.1, 1930.03 pp. 98-99 fn-2, Dr P.C. BAGCH; A Critical Study of the Geographical Data in the Early Puranas, p 168, Dr M. R. Singh; Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, p 310, 328, Dr J. L. Kamboj; New light on History of Bengal, Indian Historical Quarterly, Vol. XV-4, 1939, p. 511; The Dynastic History of Northern India, I, p 309 by Dr. H. C. Ray; History and Culture of Indian People, Imperial Kanauj, p 323, Dr A. D. Pusalkar, Dr R. C. Majumdar etc etc.
  79. ^ Sasanavamsa (Pali Text Series), pp 64-65, 83 etc
  80. ^ Cultural Heritage of India, by Dr Debala Mitra, p 625
  81. ^ History and Culture of Indian People, The Age of Imperial Kanauj, p 54
  82. ^ Inscription B.8, V.13
  83. ^ Epigraphia Indica, XXII, 153
  84. ^ Historical Quarterly XV. 511; Dynatic History of Northern India, Vol I p 311
  85. ^ History of Bengal, 1971, pp 182-82, Dr R. C. Majumdar
  86. ^ The Kambojas Through the Ages, 2005, p 228, fn 83
  87. ^ The Dacca University Studies, Vol I., No 2, April 1936, p 132 Dr R.C. Majumdar
  88. ^ Military History & Fiction (Bihar, Nepal, and Orissa), Airavat Singh.
  89. ^ Indian Historical Quarterly, XV-4, December 1939, p 511
  90. ^ Indian Historical Quarterly, XV-4, Dec, 1939, p 511 Dr H. C. Ray.
  91. ^ The Dynastic History of Northern India, p 311, f.n. 1.
  92. ^ Vanger Jatya Itihasa (Bangla), Rajyakanda, Nagendra Nath Vasu
  93. ^ Epigraphia Indica, XXVI., p 45-46.
  94. ^ Ancient Kamboja, People and the Country, 1981, p 311, Dr J. L. Kamboj.
  95. ^ Indian Cultural Influence in Cambodia, pp 278-79, Dr B. R. Chatterjee

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