Kyuzo Mifune (l) and Jigoro Kano (r). |
|
| Focus | Grappling |
|---|---|
| Hardness | Full contact |
| Country of origin | Japan |
| Creator | Jigoro Kano |
| Famous practitioners | Tsunejiro Tomita, Shiro Saigo, Mitsuo Maeda, Kyuzo Mifune, Keiko Fukuda, Masahiko Kimura, Anton Geesink, Yasuhiro Yamashita, Neil Adams, Hidehiko Yoshida, David Douillet, Kosei Inoue, Teddy Riner |
| Parenthood | Various koryū Jujutsu schools, principally Tenjin Shin'yō-ryū and Kito-ryū |
| Descendant arts | Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu, Kosen Judo, Sambo, Daido Juku, Nippon Kempo |
| Olympic sport | Since 1964[1] (men) and 1992[2] (women) |
| Official website | International Judo Federation (IJF) The Kodokan |
Judo (柔道 jūdō, meaning "gentle way") is a modern martial art and combat sport created in Japan in 1882 by Jigoro Kano. Its most prominent feature is its competitive element, where the object is to either throw or takedown one's opponent to the ground, immobilize or otherwise subdue one's opponent with a grappling maneuver, or force an opponent to submit by joint locking or by executing a strangle hold or choke. Strikes and thrusts by hands and feet as well as weapons defences are a part of judo, but only in pre-arranged forms (kata) and are not allowed in judo competition or free practice (randori).
The philosophy and subsequent pedagogy developed for judo became the model for other modern Japanese martial arts that developed from koryū (古流, traditional schools). The worldwide spread of judo has led to the development of a number of offshoots such as Sambo and Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu. Practitioners of judo are called judoka.
The early history of judo is inseparable from its founder, Japanese polymath and educator Jigoro Kano (嘉納 治五郎 Kanō Jigorō, 1860–1938), born Shinnosuke Kano (嘉納 新之助 Kanō Shinnosuke). Kano was born into a relatively affluent family. His father, Jirosaku, was the second son of the head priest of the Shinto Hiyoshi shrine in Shiga Prefecture. He married Sadako Kano, daughter of the owner of Kiku-Masamune sake brewing company and was adopted by the family, changing his name to Kano, and ultimately became an official in the Bakufu government.[3]
Jigoro Kano had an academic upbringing and, from the age of seven, he studied English, Japanese calligraphy (書道 shodō) and the Four Confucian Texts (四書 Shisho) under a number of tutors.[4] When he was fourteen, Kano began boarding at an English-medium school, Ikuei-Gijuku in Shiba, Tokyo. The culture of bullying endemic at this school was the catalyst that caused Kano to seek out a Jujutsu (柔術 Jūjutsu) dojo (道場 dōjō, training place) at which to train.[4]
Early attempts to find a jujutsu teacher who was willing to take him on met with little success. With the fall of the Tokugawa shogunate in the Meiji Restoration of 1868, jujutsu had become unfashionable in an increasingly westernised Japan. Many of those who had once taught the art had been forced out of teaching or become so disillusioned with it that they had simply given up. Nakai Umenari, an acquaintance of Kanō's father and a former soldier, agreed to show him kata, but not to teach him. The caretaker of his father's second house, Katagiri Ryuji, also knew jujutsu, but would not teach it as he believed it was no longer of practical use. Another frequent visitor to Kanō's father's house, Imai Genshiro of Kyūshin-ryū (扱心流) school of jujutsu, also refused.[5] Several years passed before he finally found a willing teacher.
In 1877, as a student at the Tokyo-Kaisei school (soon to become part of the newly-founded Tokyo Imperial University), Kano learned that many jujutsu teachers had been forced to pursue alternative careers, frequently opening Seikotsu-in (整骨院, traditional osteopathy practices).[6] After inquiring at a number of these, Kano was referred to Fukuda Hachinosuke (c.1828–1880),[7] a teacher of the Tenjin Shin'yō-ryū (天神真楊流) of jujutsu, who had a small nine mat dojo where he taught five students.[8] Fukuda is said to have emphasized technique over formal exercise, sowing the seeds of Kano's emphasis on randori (乱取り randori, free practice) in Judo.
On Fukuda's death in 1880, Kano, who had become his keenest and most able student in both randori and kata (形 kata, pre-arranged forms), was given the densho (伝書, scrolls) of the Fukuda dojo.[9] Kano chose to continue his studies at another Tenjin Shin'yō-ryū school, that of Iso Masatomo (c.1820–1881). Iso placed more emphasis on the practice of kata, and entrusted randori instruction to assistants, increasingly to Kano.[10] Iso died in June 1881 and Kano went on to study at the dojo of Iikubo Tsunetoshi (1835–1889) of Kitō-ryū (起倒流).[11] Like Fukuda, Iikubo placed much emphasis on randori, with Kitō-ryū having a greater focus on nage-waza (投げ技, throwing techniques).
In February 1882, Kano founded a school and dojo at the Eisho-ji (永昌寺), a Buddhist temple in what was then the Shitaya ward of Tokyo (now the Higashi Ueno district of Taitō ward).[12] Iikubo, Kano's Kitō-ryū instructor, attended the dojo three days a week to help teach and, although two years would pass before the temple would be called by the name Kodokan (講道館 Kōdōkan, "place for expounding the way"), and Kano had not yet received his Menkyo (免許, certificate of mastery) in Kitō-ryū, this is now regarded as the Kodokan founding.
The Eisho-ji dojo was a relatively small affair, consisting of a twelve mat training area. Kano took in resident and non-resident students, the first two being Tsunejiro Tomita and Shiro Saigo.[13] In August, the following year, the pair were granted shodan (初段, first rank) grades, the first that had been awarded in any martial art.[14]
Central to Kano's vision for Judo were the principles of seiryoku zen'yō (精力善用, maximum efficiency, minimum effort) and jita kyōei (自他共栄, mutual welfare and benefit). He illustrated the application of seiryoku zen'yō with the concept of jū yoku gō o seisu (柔よく剛を制す, gentleness controls hardness):
| “ | In short, resisting a more powerful opponent will result in your defeat, whilst adjusting to and evading your opponent's attack will cause him to lose his balance, his power will be reduced, and you will defeat him. This can apply whatever the relative values of power, thus making it possible for weaker opponents to beat significantly stronger ones. This is the theory of ju yoku go o seisu.[15] | ” |
Kano realised that seiryoku zen'yō, initially conceived as a Jujutsu concept, had a wider philosophical application. Coupled with the Confucianist-influenced jita kyōei, the wider application shaped the development of Judo from a martial art (武術 bujutsu) to a martial way (武道 budō). Kano rejected techniques that did not conform to these principles and emphasised the importance of efficiency in the execution of techniques. He was convinced that practice of Jujutsu while conforming to these ideals was a route to self-improvement and the betterment of society in general.[16] He was, however, acutely conscious of the Japanese public's negative perception of Jujutsu:
| “ | At the time a few bujitsu (martial arts) experts still existed but bujitsu was almost abandoned by the nation at large. Even if I wanted to teach jujitsu most people had now stopped thinking about it. So I thought it better to teach under a different name principally because my objectives were much wider than jujitsu.[17] | ” |
Kano believed that "Jūjutsu" was insufficient to describe his art: although Jutsu (術) means "art" or "means", it implies a method consisting of a collection of physical techniques. Accordingly, he changed the second character to dō (道), meaning way, road or path, which implies a more philosophical context than jutsu and has a common origin with the Chinese concept of tao. Thus Kano renamed it Judo (柔道 Jūdō).[18]
There are three basic categories of waza (技, techniques) in Judo: nage-waza (投げ技, throwing techniques), katame-waza (固技, grappling techniques) and atemi-waza (当て身技, striking techniques).[19] Judo is most known for nage-waza and katame-waza.[20]
Judo practitioners typically devote a portion of each practice session to ukemi (受け身, break-falls), in order that nage-waza can be practiced without significant risk of injury. Several distinct types of ukemi exist, including ushiro ukemi (後ろ受身, rear breakfalls); yoko ukemi (横受け身, side breakfalls); mae ukemi (前受け身, front breakfalls); and zenpo kaiten ukemi (前方回転受身, rolling breakfalls)
The person who performs a waza is known as tori (取り, literally "taker") and the person to whom it is performed is known as uke (受け, literally "receiver").
Nage waza include all techniques in which tori attempts to throw or trip uke, usually with the aim of placing uke on his back. Each technique has three distinct stages:
Nage waza are typically drilled by the use of uchi komi (内込), repeated turning-in, taking the throw up to the point of kake.[23]
Traditionally, nage waza are further categorised into tachi-waza (立ち技, standing techniques), throws that are performed with tori maintaining an upright position, and sutemi-waza (捨身技, sacrifice techniques), throws in which tori sacrifices his upright position in order to throw uke.[24]
Tachi-waza are further subdivided into te-waza (手技, hand techniques), in which tori predominantly uses his arms to throw uke; koshi-waza (腰技, hip techniques) throws that predominantly use a lifting motion from the hips; and ashi-waza (足技, foot and leg techniques), throws in which tori predominantly utilises his legs.[24]
| Nage-waza (投げ技) throwing techniques |
Tachi-waza (立ち技) standing techniques |
Te-waza (手技) hand techniques |
| Koshi-waza (腰技) hip techniques |
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| Ashi-waza (足技) foot and leg techniques |
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| Sutemi-waza (捨身技) sacrifice techniques |
Ma-sutemi-waza (真捨身技) rear sacrifice techniques |
|
| Yoko-sutemi-waza (橫捨身技) side sacrifice techniques |
Katame-waza is further categorised into osaekomi-waza (押込技, holding techniques), in which tori traps and pins uke on his back on the floor; shime-waza (絞技, strangulation techniques), in which tori attempts to force a submission by choking or strangling uke; and kansetsu-waza (関節技, joint techniques), in which tori attempts to submit uke by painful manipulation of his joints.
A related concept is that of ne-waza (寝技, prone techniques), in which waza are applied from a non-standing position.
Kansetsu-waza is currently limited, outside of kata, to elbow joint manipulation.
| Katame-waza (固技) grappling techniques |
Osaekomi-waza (押込技) holding or pinning techniques |
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| Shime-waza (絞技) strangulation techniques |
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| Kansetsu-waza (関節技) Joint techniques (locks) |
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Atemi-waza are techniques in which tori disables uke with a strike to a vital point. Atemi-waza are not permitted outside of kata.[25]
Judo pedagogy emphasizes randori (乱取り, literally "taking chaos", but meaning "free practice"). This term covers a variety of forms of practice, and the intensity at which it is carried out varies depending on intent and the level of expertise of the participants. At one extreme, is a compliant style of randori, known as Yakusoku geiko (約束稽古, prearranged practice), in which neither participant offers resistance to their partner's attempts to throw. A related concept is that of Sute geiko (捨稽古, throw-away practice), in which an experienced judoka allows himself to be thrown by his less-experienced partner.[26] At the opposite extreme from yakusoku geiko is the hard style of randori that seeks to emulate the style of Judo seen in competition. While hard randori is the cornerstone of Judo, over-emphasis of the competitive aspect is seen as undesirable by traditionalists if the intent of the randori is to "win" rather than to learn.[27]
Randori is usually limited to either tachi waza (standing techniques) or ne waza (ground work) and, when one partner is thrown in tachi waza randori, practice is resumed with both partners on their feet.
Kata (形 kata, Forms) are pre-arranged patterns of techniques and in judo, with the exception of the Seiryoku-Zen'yō Kokumin-Taiiku, they are all practised with a partner. Their purposes include illustrating the basic principles of judo, demonstrating the correct execution of a technique, teaching the philosophical tenets upon which judo is based, allowing for the practice of techniques that are not allowed in randori, and to preserve ancient techniques that are historically important but are no longer used in contemporary judo.
There are ten kata that are recognized by the Kodokan today:[28]
In addition, there are a number of commonly practiced kata that are not recognised by the Kodokan. Some of the more common kata include:
Contest (試合 shiai) is a vitally important aspect of Judo. Early examples include the Kodokan Monthly Tournament (月次試合 Tsukinami shiai) and the biannual Red and White Tournament (紅白試合 Kohaku jiai), both of which started in 1884 and continue to the present day.
In 1899 a committee of the Dai Nippon Butoku Kai chaired by Jigoro Kano drew up the first formal set of rules for Judo contests. Wins were by two ippons, awarded for throwing the opponent onto his back or by pinning them on their back for a "sufficient" amount of time or by submission. Submissions could be achieved via shime-waza or kansetsu-waza. Finger, toe and ankle locks were prohibited. Contests were set at 15 minutes long. In 1900, these rules were adopted by the Kodokan with amendments made to prohibit all joint locks for kyu grades and added wrist locks to the prohibited kansetsu-waza for dan grades. It was also stated that the ratio of tachi-waza to ne-waza should be between 70% to 80% for kyu grades and 60% to 70% for dan grades.
In 1916, additional rulings were brought in to further limit kansetsu waza with the prohibition of ashi garami and neck locks, as well as do jime.[41] These were further added to in 1925, in response to Kosen Judo (高專柔道 Kōsen jūdō), which concentrated on ne waza at the expense of tachi waza. The new rules banned all remaining joint locks except those applied to the elbow and prohibited the dragging down of an opponent to enter ne waza.
The All-Japan Judo Championships (全日本柔道選手権大会 Zennihon jūdō senshuken taikai) were first held in 1930 and have been held every year, with the exception of the wartime period between 1941 and 1948, and continue to be the highest profile tournament in Japan.
Judo's international profile was boosted by the introduction of the World Judo Championships in 1956. The championships were initially a fairly small affair, with 31 athletes attending from 21 countries in the first year. Competitors were exclusively male until the introduction of the Women's Championships in 1980, which took place on alternate years to the Men's Championships. The championships were combined in 1987 to create an event that takes place annually, except for the years in which Olympic games are held. Participation has steadily increased such that, in the most recent championships in 2011, 871 competitors from 132 countries took part.
The first time judo was seen in the Olympic Games was in an informal demonstration hosted by Kano at the 1932 Games.[42] However, Kano was ambivalent about Judo's potential inclusion as an Olympic sport:
| “ | I have been asked by people of various sections as to the wisdom and possibility of Judo being introduced with other games and sports at the Olympic Games. My view on the matter, at present, is rather passive. If it be the desire of other member countries, I have no objection. But I do not feel inclined to take any initiative. For one thing, Judo in reality is not a mere sport or game. I regard it as a principle of life, art and science. In fact, it is a means for personal cultural attainment. Only one of the forms of Judo training, so-called randori or free practice can be classed as a form of sport. Certainly, to some extent, the same may be said of boxing and fencing, but today they are practiced and conducted as sports. Then the Olympic Games are so strongly flavored with nationalism that it is possible to be influenced by it and to develop "Contest Judo", a retrograde form as ju-jitsu was before the Kodokan was founded. Judo should be free as art and science from any external influences, political, national, racial, and financial or any other organized interest. And all things connected with it should be directed to its ultimate object, the "Benefit of Humanity". Human sacrifice is a matter of ancient history.[43] | ” |
Nevertheless, Judo became an Olympic sport for men in the 1964 Games in Tokyo. The Olympic Committee initially dropped judo for the 1968 Olympics, meeting protests.[44] Dutchman Anton Geesink won the first Olympic gold medal in the open division of judo by defeating Akio Kaminaga of Japan. The women's event was introduced at the Olympics in 1988 as a demonstration event, and an official medal event in 1992. Paralympic judo has been a Paralympic sport (for the visually impaired) since 1988; it is also one of the sports at the Special Olympics.
The traditional rules of judo are intended provide a basis under which to test skill in Judo, while avoiding significant risk of injury to the competitors. Additionally, the rules are also intended to enforce proper reigi (礼儀, etiquette).
Penalties may be given for being inactive during the match, or for using illegal techniques. Fighting must be stopped if a participant is outside the designated area on the mat (tatami). If the referee and judges need to discuss something during groundwork, the referee will call sono-mama (used in the sense "do not move", literally "as-is") and both fighters must stop in the position they are in. When they are done, the referee says yoshi and the match continues.
All scores and penalties are given by the referee. The judges can make a decision that changes the score or penalty given by the referee.
There are slight differences to IJF rules to accommodate blind judo.
A throw that places the opponent on his back with impetus and control scores ippon (一本), winning the contest.[45] A lesser throw, where the opponent is thrown onto his back, but with insufficient force to merit an ippon, scores waza-ari (技あり).[45] Two scores of waza-ari equal ippon (技あり合わせて一本 waza-ari awasete ippon).[45] A throw that places the opponent onto his side scores yuko (有効).[45] No amount of yukos equal a waza-ari, they are only considered in the event of an otherwise tied contest.[45]
Ippon is scored in ne-waza for pinning an opponent on his back with a recognised osaekomi-waza for 25 seconds or by forcing a submission through shime-waza or kansetsu-waza.[45] A submission is signalled by tapping the mat or the opponent at least twice with the hand or foot, or by saying maitta (まいった, I surrender).[45] A pin lasting for less than 25 seconds, but more than 20 seconds scores waza-ari and one lasting less than 20 seconds but more than 15 seconds scores yuko.[45]
Formerly, there was an additional score that was lesser to yuko, that of Koka (効果). This has since been removed.
If the scores are identical at the end of the match, the contest is resolved by the Golden Score rule. Golden Score is a sudden death situation where the clock is reset to match-time, and the first contestant to achieve any score wins. If there is no score during this period, then the winner is decided by Hantei, the majority opinion of the referee and the two corner judges.
Judo scoreboards show the number of waza-ari and yuko scores scored by each player. (A score of koka was also displayed until its use was abandoned in 2009.) Often an ippon is not represented on the scoreboard, because upon award of an ippon the match is immediately terminated. Some computerized scoreboards will briefly indicate that an ippon has been scored.
Scoreboards normally also show the number of penalties imposed on each player, and sometimes the number of medical visits for each. (Only two "medical" attentions are allowed for each competitor during a match—most often for minor bleeds.)
Electronic scoreboards also usually include timers for measuring both competition time and osaekomi time.
There are currently seven weight divisions, subject to change by governing bodies, and may be modified based on the age of the competitors:
| Men | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Under 60 kg | 60–66 kg | 66–73 kg | 73–81 kg | 81–90 kg | 90–100 kg | Over 100 kg |
| Women | ||||||
| Under 48 kg | 48–52 kg | 52–57 kg | 57–63 kg | 63–70 kg | 70–78 kg | Over 78 kg |
The first penalty is a warning, which is noted on the scoreboard. The second penalty is scored as "yuko" for the opponent. The third penalty is scored as "waza-ari". The fourth penalty is called "hansoku make," and is scored as an "ippon" for the opponent. With a "hansoku make" the match ends permanently. One can also get a direct "hansoku make" for serious rule violations. In this case, the player who got "hansoku make" is disqualified from the tournament.
Kano Jigoro's Kodokan judo is the most popular and well-known style of judo, but is not the only one. The terms judo and jujutsu were quite interchangeable in the early years, so some of these forms of judo are still known as jujutsu or jiu-jitsu either for that reason, or simply to differentiate them from mainstream judo. From Kano's original style of judo, several related forms have evolved—some now widely considered to be distinct arts:
In Japan, 114 child judo deaths have been reported in a 27-year period between 1983 and 2010.[47] Adult competitive judo has a higher incidence of injuries compared to non-collision or non-contact ball-sports for example, but similar to other competitive contact sports. In Judo, a majority of the time Judoka are taught to fall properly, although not many players actually use breakfalls in competitive judo (at a competition) as it is basically slamming your hand on the mat indicating to the referee that there has been an ippon scored.[48][49]
Although chokes are potentially lethal techniques, a properly applied choke hold, if released soon enough after submission or unconsciousness, causes no injury. Judo chokes are generally taught to the more experienced Judoka to help ensure the safety of the students.[50][51] There is ample data demonstrating the safety of applying chokeholds,[52][53][54] and training includes emergency care[55] and resuscitation (kappo).[50]
A properly applied throw performed in a controlled way should protect the opponent from injury. However injuries may result if, for example, the thrower (Tori) lands on the opponent (Uke) as a result of a sloppy or intentionally malicious throw, or if the tori performs a sloppy throw with disregard for uke's joints (e.g., improper Osoto gari or Tai otoshi applied with lateral force to the knee; or sloppy Soto makikomi or "drop" Ippon seoi nage resulting in excessive forces into uke's shoulder). To best prevent throwing injuries, proper throwing techniques should be thoroughly drilled by teachers before entering students into competition—via "fitting-in" drills (Uchi-komi's), prearranged forms (e.g., Nage-no-kata), and intense but controlled & supervised free-practice/sparring (Randori).
A practitioner of Judo is known as a Judoka (柔道家 jūdōka, Judo practitioner), though traditionally only those of 4th dan or higher were called "Judoka". The suffix -ka (家), when added to a noun, means a person with expertise or special knowledge on that subject. Other practitioners below the rank of 4th dan used to be called kenkyu-sei (研究生, trainees). The modern meaning of Judoka refers to a Judo practitioner of any level of expertise.
A Judo teacher is called sensei (先生). The word sensei comes from sen or saki (before) and sei (life) – i.e. one who has preceded you. In Western dojo, it is common to call any instructor of dan grade sensei. Traditionally, that title was reserved for instructors of 4th dan and above.
Judo practitioners traditionally wear white uniforms called jūdōgi (柔道着, judo uniform), sometimes the abbreviated as gi. The jūdōgi was created by Kano in 1907, and similar uniforms were later adopted by many other martial arts. The modern jūdōgi consists of white or blue cotton drawstring pants and a matching white or blue quilted cotton jacket, fastened by an obi (帯, belt), coloured to indicate rank. The jacket is intended to withstand the stresses of grappling and, as a result, is much thicker than that of a karategi (karate uniform). Jūdōgi are designed to allow an opponent to hold onto it, while karategi are made from slicker material so that an opponent cannot get a grip on the material.
The modern use of the blue jūdōgi was first suggested by Anton Geesink at the 1986 Maastricht IJF DC Meeting.[56] For competition, a blue jūdōgi is worn by one of the two competitors for ease of distinction by judges, referees, and spectators. In Japan, both jūdōka use a white jūdōgi and the traditional red obi (based on the colors of the Japanese flag) is affixed to the belt of one competitor. Outside Japan, a colored obi may also be used for convenience in minor competitions, the blue jūdōgi only being mandatory at the regional or higher levels, depending on organisation. Japanese practitioners and traditionalists tend to look down on the use of blue because of the fact that Judo is considered a pure sport, and the replacing the pure white jūdōgi for the impure blue, is an offence.[56]
For events organised under the auspices of the International Judo Federation (IJF), jūdōgi have to bear the IJF Official Logo Mark Label. This label demonstrates that the jūdōgi has passed a number of quality control tests to ensure it conforms to construction regulations ensuring it is not too stiff, flexible, rigid or slippery to allow the opponent to grip or to perform techniques.[57]
The international governing body for Judo is the International Judo Federation (IJF), founded in 1951. Members of the IJF include the African Judo Union (AJU), the Pan-American Judo Confederation (PJC), the Judo Union of Asia (JUA), the European Judo Union (EJU) and the Oceania Judo Union (OJU), each comprising a number of national judo associations. The IJF is responsible for organising international competition and hosts the World Judo Championships and is involved in running the Olympic Judo events.[58]
Numerous non-IJF affiliated organisations exist, often having a more traditional focus than some of the IJF-affiliated organisations, which are sometimes criticised for over-emphasising the competitive side of jūdō.
Judoka are ranked according to skill and knowledge of judo, and their rank is denoted by a system of ranks in modern systems these ranks are reflected by their belt colours. Ranks are split into kyū grades and dan (Black belt grades. This kyu/dan ranking system was introduced into the martial arts by Kano and has since been widely adopted by modern martial arts as was.[59] As initially designed, there were six student grades ranked in descending numerical order, with 1st kyū being the last before promotion to shodan (first degree black belt).
The highest grade jūdan (tenth degree black belt) has no formal requirements and is decided by the president of the Kodokan, currently Kano Jigoro's grandson Yukimitsu Kano (Kano Yukimitsu). As of 2011, fifteen Japanese men have been promoted to this rank by the Kodokan, three of whom are still alive;[59] the IJF and Western national federations have promoted another seven who are not recognized by the Kodokan. On July 28, 2011, the promotion board of USA Judo awarded Sensei Keiko Fukuda the rank of 10th dan, she is the first woman to be promoted to judo's highest level.
Although dan ranks tend to be consistent between national organizations there is more variation in the kyū grades, with some countries having more kyū grades. Although initially kyū grade belt colours were uniformly white, today a variety of colours are used. The first black belts to denote a Dan rank in the 1880s, initially the wide obi was used; as practitioners trained in kimono, only white and black obi were used. It was not until the early 1900s, after the introduction of the judogi, that an expanded colored belt system of awarding rank was created.[59]
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