James E. Marcia is a clinical and developmental psychologist. He has held professorships in US and Canadian universities, and is currently an Emeritus Professor of Psychology at Simon Fraser University in British Columbia, Canada. He is also active in clinical private practice, clinical psychology supervision, community consultation, and international clinical-developmental research and teaching.
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Marcia is perhaps best known for his extensive research and writings on psychological development, with specific attention focused on adolescent psychosocial development and lifespan identity development. Erik H. Erikson had suggested that the normative conflict occurring in adolescence is the opposition between identity achievement and identity confusion. Marcia elaborated on Erikson’s proposal in a citation classic[1] by suggesting this stage consists neither of identity resolution nor identity confusion as Erikson claimed, but is better understood as the extent to which one has both explored and committed to an identity in a variety of life domains including politics, occupation, religion, intimate relationships, friendships, and gender roles. 'Two crucial areas in which the adolescent must make such commitments are ideology and occupation'.[2]
His theory of identity achievement states that there are two distinct parts contributing to the achievement of adolescent identity: a time of choosing or crisis, and a commitment. He defined a crisis as a time of upheaval where old values or choices are being reexamined and new alternatives are explored - 'times during adolescence when the individual seems to be actively involved in choosing among alternative occupations and beliefs'.[3] Both exploration and commitment are the two processes that contribute to differences in outcome during an Identity crisis. That is, whether or not (the extent to which) one explores identity alternatives and whether or not one makes a commitment to chosen alternatives.
Marcia developed the Identity Status Interview, a method of semi-structured interview for identity research, that investigates an individual's extent of exploration and commitment across different life areas. Evaluating the material provided in this interview by using a scoring manual developed by Marcia and colleagues yields four possible outcomes, or Identity Statuses, of psychological identity development: Foreclosure, Identity Diffusion, Moratorium, and Identity Achievement.
'The foreclosure status is when a commitment is made without exploring alternatives. Often these commitments are based on parental ideas and beliefs that are accepted without question'.[4] As Marcia put it, ' the individual about to become a Methodist, Republican farmer like his Methodist, Republican farmer father, with little or no thought in the matter, certainly cannot be said to have "achieved" an identity, in spite of his commitment'.[5]
Adolescents may foreclose on the handed-down identity willingly or under pressure. The case of "negative-identity" occurs when adolescents adopt an identity in direct opposition to a prescribed identity. Foreclosures' 'endorsement of authoritarian values...is consistent with the description of them as becoming their parents' alter egos'.[6] Marcia stressed that 'once the foreclosure position is left behind (i.e. a crisis has been experienced), it is no longer an option'.[7]
'Some adolescents become overwhelmed by the task of identity development and neither explore nor make commitments...may become socially isolated and withdrawn'[8]: Identity diffusion. 'Identity Diffusion is generally considered the least mature and least complex status'[9] of the four identity statuses. Identity Diffusion is the status of individuals who have neither explored nor made commitments across life-defining areas. They may or may not have experienced a crisis, with some Diffusions reporting having little interest in such matters and others reporting repeated indecision.
Marcia suggested that those with identity diffusion 'do not experience much anxiety because there is little in which they are invested. As they begin to care more...they move to the moratorium status, or they become so disturbed that they are diagnosed schizophrenic'.[10] Others indicate that 'in the most extreme cases of role diffusion, adolescents may adopt a negative identity'.[11]
Identity moratorium is the status of individuals who are in the midst of a crisis but whose commitments are either absent or are only vaguely defined. 'The moratorium status is characterized by the active exploration of alternatives'.[12] Marcia noted that 'moratoriums...report experiencing more anxiety than do Ss in any other status...The world for them is not, currently, a highly predictable place; they are vitally engaged in a struggle to make it so'.[13]
Nevertheless over time a tendency has been observed for longer periods to be spent in the status, as 'Children of the Sixties...granted themselves a long moratorium on commitments...'Provisional Adulthood '.[14]
Once a crisis has become, 'a likely progression would be from diffusion through moratorium to identity achievement'.[15] The latter is thus the status of individuals who have typically experienced a crisis, undergone identity explorations and made commitments. Marcia found some evidence to support his 'theoretical description of Ss who have achieved an identity as having developed an internal, as opposed to external, locus of self-definition'.[16]
While Marcia primarily focused on the late adolescent years, his theory is applicable in later adulthood, when identity crises may reoccur.One study, exploring correlations between the identity statuses of Marcia's model and social behaviors, focused on young adults ranging in age from 19 to 35.[17] People's identity status is not specifically limited to an age group. Individuals may explore elements tied to their identity throughout life, such as faith, ideology, and occupational preference to name a few.[18]
Using Marcia's semi-structured interview approach enables research to be flexibly adapted to different cultures. There has been a good deal of cross-cultural validation of the Identity Statuses.
Critical research has suggested however that '(a) The four statuses do not operate in a developmental sequence...(b) conscious exploration is not required for and often does not occur in identity achievement; and (c) numerous studies conducted in support of the statuses focus less on developmental issues and more on classification issues (Cote 2006)'.[19]