Hiligaynon language

Hiligaynon
Ilonggo, Hiligaynon, Hiligainon
Pronunciation ˌhɪlɪˈgeɪnən
Spoken in  Philippines
USA
Region Western Visayas, Mindanao and Hawaii
Native speakers 5.8 million  (2000 census)[1]
4th-most-spoken native language in the Philippines
Language family
Writing system Latin (Filipino alphabet)
Baybayin (c. 13th–19th centuries)
Official status
Official language in Regional language in the Philippines
Regulated by Commission on the Filipino Language
Language codes
ISO 639-2 hil
ISO 639-3 hil
This page contains IPA phonetic symbols in Unicode. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters.

Hiligaynon, often referred to as Ilonggo, is an Austronesian language spoken in the Western Visayas region of the Philippines.[2]

Hiligaynon is concentrated in the provinces of Iloilo, Negros Occidental and Capiz but is also spoken in the other provinces of the Panay Island group, including Antique, Aklan, Guimaras, and in many parts of Mindanao including Koronadal City, South Cotabato, Sultan Kudarat and parts of North Cotabato. Further, it is spoken as a second language by Karay-a speakers in Antique, Aklanon and Malaynon in Aklan, and Capiznon in Capiz.[3]

There are approximately 7,000,000 people in and outside the Philippines who are native speakers of Hiligaynon, and an additional 4,000,000 who are capable of speaking it with a substantial degree of proficiency.[1]

It is a member of the Visayan language family. It is distinctive from most Filipino languages for its sing-song intonation, much like Italian, particularly in the Bacolodnon dialect, a characteristic that is derived from the large number of mestizos de sangley (Chinese mestizos) in the region.[4]

The language is referred to as "Ilonggo" (Spanish: ilongo) in Iloilo and in Negros Occidental. Many argue, however, that this is an incorrect usage of the word "Ilonggo." In precise usage, "Ilonggo" should only be used in relation to the ethnolinguistic group that are native inhabitants of Iloilo and the culture associated with native Hiligaynon speakers, they argue. The disagreement over the usage of "Ilonggo" to refer to the language extends to Philippine language specialists and native laymen.[5]

Contents

Writing system

Until the second half of the 20th century, Hiligaynon was widely written based on Spanish orthography consisting of 32 letters called ABECEDARIO:

A B C Ch D E F G H I J K L Ll M N Ng Ñ N͠g/Ng̃/Ñg O P Q R Rr S T U V W X Y Z[6][7]

The core alphabet consists of 20 letters used for expressing consonants and vowels in Hiligaynon, each of which comes in an upper case and lower case variety.

Alphabet

The 1st to 10th letters
Symbol A a B b K k D d E e G g H h I i L l M m
Name a ba ka da e ga ha i la ma
Pronunciation [a/ə] [aw] [aj] [b] [k] [d] [ɛ/e] [g] [h] [I/i] [IO] [l] [m]
in context a aw/ao ay b k d e g h i iw/io l m
The 11th to 20th letters
Symbol N n Ng ng O o P p R r S s T t U u W w Y y
Name na nga o pa ra sa ta u wa ya
Pronunciation [n] [ŋ] [ɔ/o] [oj] [p] [r] [s] [ʃʲ] [t] [ʊ/u] [w] [w] [j]
in context n ng o oy p r s sy t u ua w y

Additional symbols

The apostrophe(') and dash(-) also appear in Hiligaynon writing, and might be considered letters. In addition, some English letters may be used in borrowed words.

Grammar

Determiners

Hiligaynon has three types of case markers: absolutive, ergative, and oblique. These types in turn are divided into personal, that have to do with names of people and impersonal, that deal with everything else, and further into singular and plural types, though the plural impersonal case markers are just the singular impersonal case markers + mga, a particle used to denote plurality in Hiligaynon.[8]

  Absolutive Ergative Oblique
singular impersonal ang sang, sing* sa
plural impersonal ang mga sang mga, sing mga* sa mga
singular personal si ni kay
plural personal** sanday nanday kanday

(*)The articles sing and sing mga means the following noun is indefinite, while sang tells of a definite noun, like the use of a in English as opposed to the, however, it is not as common in modern speech, being replace by sang. It appears in conservative translations of the Bible into Hiligaynon and in traditional or formal speech
(**)The plural personal case markers are not used very often and not even by all speakers. Again, this is an example of a case marker that has fallen largely into disuse, but is still occasionally used when speaking a more traditional form of Hiligaynon, using less Spanish loan words.

The case markers do not determine which noun is the subject and which is the object; rather, the affix of the verb determines this, though the ang-marked noun is always the topic.

Example
Ang lalaki nagkaon sang tinapay. ≈ Ang tinapay ginkaon sang lalaki.
"The man ate the bread" "The bread was eaten by the man" (literal)

Personal pronouns

  Absolutive Ergative₁
(Postposed)		 Ergative₂
(Preposed)		 Oblique
1st person singular ako, ko nakon, ko akon sa akon
2nd person singular ikaw, ka nimo, mo imo sa imo
3rd person singular siya niya iya sa iya
1st person plural inclusive kita naton, ta aton sa aton
1st person plural exclusive kami namon amon sa amon
2nd person plural kamo ninyo inyo sa inyo
3rd person plural sila nila ila sa ila

Demonstrative pronouns

  Absolutive Ergative/Oblique Locative Existential
Nearest to speaker (this, here) * iní siní dirí (y)ári
Near to addressee or closely removed from speaker and addressee (that, there) inâ sinâ dirâ (y)ára'
Remote (yon, yonder) ató sadtó didtó (y)á(d)to

In addition to this, there are two verbal deictics, karí, meaning come to speaker, and kadto, meaning to go yonder.

Copula

Hiligaynon lacks the marker of sentence inversion "ay" of Tagalog/Filipino or "hay" of Akeanon. Instead sentences in SV form (Filipino: Di karaniwang anyo) are written without any marker or copula.

Examples:

"Si Inday ay maganda" (Tagalog)

"Si Inday matahum" (Hiligaynon) = "Inday is beautiful."

"Inday is beautiful" (English)

There is no direct translation for the English copula "to be" in Hiligaynon. However, the prefixes mangin- and nangin- may be used to mean will be and became, respectively.

Example:

Manámî mangin manggaranon
"It is nice to become rich"

The Spanish copula "estar" (to be) has also become a part of the Hiligaynon lexicon. Its meaning and pronunciation have become corrupted. In Hiligaynon it is pronounced as "istar" and means "to live (in)/location"(Compare with the Hiligaynon word "puyo").

Example:

Nagaistar ako sa tabuc suba
"I live in tabuc suba" "tabuc suba" translates to "other side of the river" and is also a barangay in Jaro, Iloilo.

Existential

To indicate the existence of an object, the word may is used.

Example:

May idô (a)ko
"I have a dog"

Hiligaynon Linkers

When an adjective modifies a noun, the linker nga links the two.

Example:

Itom nga ido
Black dog

Sometimes, if the linker is preceded by a word that ends in a vowel, glottal stop or the letter N, it becomes acceptable to contract it into -ng, as in Filipino. This is often used to make the words sound more poetic or to reduce the number of syllables. Sometimes the meaning may change as in maayo nga aga and maayong aga. The first meaning: (the) good morning; while the other is the greeting for 'good morning'.

The linker ka is used if a number modifies a noun.

Example:

Anum ka ido
six dogs

Interrogative words

The interrogative words of Hiligaynon are as follows: diin, san-o, sin-o, nga-a, kamusta, ano, and pila

Diin means where.
Example:
Diin ka na subong?
"Where are you now?"

A derivation of diin, tagadiin, is used to inquire the birthplace or hometown of the listener.
Example:
Tagadiin ka?
"Where are you from?"

San-o means when
Example:
San-o inâ?
"When is that?"

Sin-o means who
Example:
Sin-o imo abyan?
"Who is your friend?"

Nga-a means why
Example:
Nga-a indi ka magkadto?
"Why won't you go?"

Kamusta means how, as in "How are you?"
Example:
Kamusta ang tindahan?
"How is the store?"

Ano means what
Example:
Ano ang imo ginabasa?
"What are you reading?"

A derivative of ano, paano, means how, as in "How do I do that?"
Example:
Paano ko makapulî?
"How can I get home?"

A derivative of paano is paanoano an archaic phrase which can be compared with kamusta
Example:
Paanoano ikaw?
"How art thou?"

Pila means how much/how many
Example:
Pila ang maupod sa imo?
"How many are with you?"

A derivative of pila, ikapila, asks the numerical order of the person, as in, "What place were you born in your family?"(first-born, second-born, etc.) This word is notoriously difficult to translate into English, as English has no equivalent.
Example:
Ikapila ka sa inyo pamilya?
"What place were you born into your family?"

A derivative of pila, tagpila, asks the monetary value of something, as in, "How much is this beef?"
Example:
Tagpila ini nga karne sang baka?
"How much is this beef?"

Verbs

Focus[9]

See also: Austronesian alignment

As it is essential for sentence structure and meaning, focus is a key concept in Hiligaynon and other Philippine languages. In English, in order to emphasize a part of a sentence, variation in intonation is usually employed – the voice is stronger or louder on the part emphasized. For example:

  1. The man is stealing rice from the market for his sister.
  2. The man is stealing rice from the market for his sister.
  3. The man is stealing rice from the market for his sister.
  4. The man is stealing rice from the market for his sister.
  5. The man is stealing rice from the market for his sister with his hands.

Furthermore, active and passive grammatical constructions can be used in English to place focus on the actor or object as the subject:

The man stole the rice. vs. The rice was stolen by the man.

In contrast, sentence focus in Philippine languages is built into the construction by grammatical elements. Focus is marked by verbal affixes and a special particle prior to the noun in focus. Consider the following Hiligaynon translations of the above sentences:

  1. Nagakawat ang lalaki sang bugas sa tinda para sa iya utod.
  2. Ginakawat sang lalaki ang bugas sa tinda para sa iya utod.
  3. Ginakawatan sang lalaki sang bugas ang tinda para sa iya utod.
  4. Ginakawatan sang lalaki sang bugas sa tinda ang iya utod.
  5. Ikawat sang lalaki sang bugas sa tinda para sa iya utod ang iya kamot.
(lalaki = man; kawat = to steal; bugas = rice; tinda = market; sister = utod; kamot = hand)

Aspect

Mode

Summary

Trigger, Mode and Aspect Affixes for Hiligaynon[10]
TRIGGER ASPECT MODE
Neutral Purposive Durative Causative Distributive Cooperative Dubitative
Agent Goal Unreal -on pag—on paga—on pa—on pang—on pakig—on iga—on
Real gin- gin- gina- ginpa- ginpang- ginpakig- ø
Referent Unreal -an pag—an paga—an pa—an pang—an pakig—an iga—an
Real gin—an gin—an gina—an ginpa—an ginpang—an ginpakig—an ø
Accessory Unreal i- ipag- ipaga- ipa- ipang- ipakig- iga-
Real gin- gin- gina- ginpa- ginpang- ginpakig- ø
Actor Unreal -um- mag- maga- ø mang- makig- ø
Real -um- nag- naga- ø nang- nakig- ø
Patient Actor Unreal maka- makapag- makapaga- makapa- makapang- mapapakig- ø
Real naka- nakapag- nakapaga- nakapa- nakapang- napapakig- ø
Goal Unreal ma- mapag- mapaga- mapa- mapang- mapakig- ø
Real na- napag- napaga- napa- napang- napakig- ø

Reduplication

Hiligaynon, like other Philippine languages, employs reduplication, the repetition of a root or stem of a word or part of a word for grammatical or semantic purposes. Reduplication in Hiligaynon tends to be limited to roots instead of affixes, as the only inflectional or derivational morpheme that seems to reduplicate is -pa-. Root reduplication suggests 'non-perfectiveness' or 'non-telicity'. Used nominally, reduplication of roots indicate particulars which are not fully actualized members of their class.[11] Note the following examples.

(1) balày-bálay
house-house
toy-house, playhouse
(2) maèstra-maéstra
teacher-teacher
make-believe teacher

Reduplication of verbal roots suggests a process lacking a focus or decisive goal. The following examples describe events which have no apparent end, in the sense of lacking purpose or completion. A lack of seriousness may also be implied. Similarly, reduplication can suggest a background process in the midst of a foreground activity, as shown in (5).[12]

(3) Nag-a- hìbî-híbî ang bátâ.
NAG-IMP- cry-cry FOC child
The child has been crying and crying.
(4) Nag-a- tìnlo-tínlo akò sang lamésa
NAG-IMP- clean-clean 1SG.FOC UNFOC table
I'm just cleaning off the table (casually).
(5) Nag-a- kàon-káon gid silá sang mag-abót ang íla bisíta.
NAG-IMP- eat-eat just 3PL.FOC UNFOC MAG-arrive FOC 3PL.UNFOC visitor
They were just eating when their visitor arrived.

When used with adjectival roots, non-telicity may suggest a gradualness of the quality, such as the comparison in (6). In comparative constructions the final syllables of each occurrence of the reduplicated root are accented. If the stress of the second occurrence is shifted to the first syllable, then the reduplicated root suggests a superlative degree, as in (7). Note that superlatives can also be created through prefixation of pinaka- to the root, as in pinaka-dakô. While non-telicity can suggest augmentation, as shown in (7), it can also indicate diminishment as in shown in (9), in contrast with (8) (note the stress contrast). In (8b), maàyoáyo, accented in the superlative pattern, suggests a trajectory of improvement that has not been fully achieved. In (9b), maàyoayó suggests a trajectory of decline when accented in the comparative pattern. The reduplicated áyo implies sub-optimal situations in both cases; full goodness/wellness is not achieved.[13]

(6) Iní nga kwárto ma-dulùm-dulúm sang sa sinâ
this.FOC LINK room MA-dark-dark UNFOC OBL that.UNFOC
This room is darker than that one.
(7) (a) dakô-dakô
big-big
bigger
(b) dakô-dákô (gid)
big-big (really)
biggest
(8) (a) Ma-áyo ang reló.
MA-good FOC watch
The watch is good/functional.
(b) Ma-àyo-áyo na ang reló.
MA-good-good now FOC watch
The watch is semi-fixed.
(9) (a) Ma-áyo akó.
MA-good 1SG.FOC
I'm well.
(b) Ma-àyo-ayó na akó.
MA-good-good now 1SG.FOC
I'm so so.

Sounds

Hiligaynon has sixteen consonants: /p t k b d ɡ m n ŋ s h w l ɾ j/. There are three main vowels: /a/, /ɛ ~ i/, and /o ~ ʊ/. [i] and [ɛ] (both spelled i) are allophones, with [i] in the beginning and middle and sometimes final syllables and [ɛ] in final syllables. The vowels [ʊ] and [o] are also allophones, with [ʊ] always being used when it is the beginning of a syllable, and [o] always used when it ends a syllable. Consonants [d] and [ɾ] were once allophones but cannot interchange as in other Philippine languages: patawaron (to forgive) [from patawad, forgiveness] but not patawadon, and tagadiín (from where) [from diín, where] but not tagariín.

Loan words

Hiligaynon has a large number of words that derive from Spanish words including nouns (e.g., santo from santo, saint), adjectives (e.g., berde from verde, green), prepositions (e.g., antes from antes, before), and conjunctions (e.g., pero from pero, but). Moreover, Spanish provides the Ilonggo base for items introduced by Spain, e.g., barko (barco, ship), sapatos (zapatos, shoes), kutsilyo (cuchillo, knife), kutsara (cuchara, spoon), tenedor (fork), plato (plate), kamiseta (camiseta, shirt), and kambiyo (cambio, change).

Spanish verbs used in Hiligaynon often remain unconjugated (have the verb endings -ar, -er or -ir) which in Filipino would almost always be conjugated in the 'vos' form, e.g., komparar, mandar, pasar, tener, disponer, mantener, and asistir.

Examples

Numbers

Number Hiligaynon
1 Isá
2 Duhá
3 Tatlo
4 Apat
5 Limá
6 Anum
7 Pitó
8 Waló
9 Siyám
10 Púlô
100 Gatús
1000 Libó
First Tig-una
Second Ika-duhá
Third Ikatlo / Ika-tatlo
Fourth Ikap-at / ika-apat
Fifth Ika-limá
Sixth Ikan-um / ika-anum
Seventh Ika-pitó
Eighth Ika-waló
Ninth Ika-siyám
Tenth Ika-púlô

Days of the week

The names of the days of the week are derived from their Spanish equivalents.

Day Adlaw
Sunday Domingo
Monday Lunes
Tuesday Martes
Wednesday Miyerkoles
Thursday Huwebes
Friday Biyernes
Saturday Sabadó

Months of the year

The first set of Hiligaynon names of the months are derived from Spanish.

Month Bulan
January Enero; ulalong
February Pebrero; dagangkahoy
March Marso; dagangbulan
April Abril; kiling
May Mayo; himabuyan
June Hunio; kabay
July Hulyo; hidapdapan
August Agosto; lubad-lubad
September Septiyembre; kangurolsol
October Oktubre; bagyo-bagyo
November Nobiyembre; panglot-diotay
December Dissiyembre; panglot-daku

Quick phrases

English Hiligaynon
Yes. Hu-o.
No. Indî.
Thank you. Salamat.
I'm sorry. Patawaron mo ako. / Pasaylo-a 'ko. / Pasensyahon mo ako. / Pasensya na.
Help me! Buligi ako! / Tabangi (a)ko! /
Delicious! Namit!
Take care. Halong.
Are you mad? Akig ka?
I don't know. Ambot. / Wala ko kabalo.
That's wonderful! Námì-námì bala! / Nami ah!

Greetings, friends and lovers

English Hiligaynon
Good morning. Maayong aga.
Good noon. Maayong ugto. maayong udto
Good afternoon. Maayong hapon.
Good evening. Maayong gab-i.
How are you? Kamusta ka?/Kamusta ikaw?/Musta na?
I'm fine. Maayo man.
I am fine, how about you? Maayo man, ikaw ya?
How old are you? Pila na ang edad (ni)mo? / Ano ang edad mo? / Pila ka-tuig ka na?
I am 25 years old. Beinte singko anyos na (a)ko./ Duha ka pulo kag lima ka tuig na (a)ko.
I am Erman. Ako si Erman./Si Erman ako.
What is your name? Ano imo ngalan?/ Ano ngalan (ni)mo?
I love you. Palangga ta ka./Ginahigugma ko ikaw.
Thank you very much. Salamat gid./ Madamo gid nga salamat.

This, that, and whatnot...

English Hiligaynon
What is this? Ano (i)ni?
This is a sheet of paper. Isa ni ka panid sang papel./Isa ka panid ka papel ini.
What is that? Ano (i)nâ?
That is a book. Libro (i)nâ.
What will you do? Ano ang himu-on (ni)mo? / Ano ang buhaton (ni)mo? / Maano ka?
What are you doing? Ano ang ginahimo (ni)mo? / Gaano ka?
I don't know. Ambot / wala ko kabalo
My girl friend/boy friend Ang akon miga/migo
My girlfriend/boyfriend Ang akon uyab

Space and time

English Hiligaynon
Where are you now? Diin ka subong?
Where shall we go? Diin (ki)ta makadto?
Where are we going? Diin (ki)ta pakadto?
Where are you going? (Sa) diin ka makadto?
We shall go to Bacolod. Makadto (ki)ta sa Bacolod.
I am going home. Mapa-uli na ko (sa balay). / (Ma)puli na ko.
Where do you live? Diin ka naga-istar?/Diin ka naga-puyô?
Where did you come from? (Where have you just been?) Diin ka (nag)-halin?
Have you been here long? Dugay ka na di(ri)?
(To the) left. (Sa) wala.
(To the) right. (Sa) tuô.
What time is it? Ano('ng) takna na?/Ano('ng) oras na?
It's ten o'clock. Alas diyes na.
What time is it now? Ano ang oras subong? or Ano oras na?

The marketplace

English Hiligaynon
May I buy? Pwede ko ma(g)-bakal?
How much is this/that? Tag-pilá iní/inâ?

The Lord's Prayer

Amay namon, nga yara ka sa mga langit
Pagdayawon ang imo ngalan
Umabot sa amon ang imo ginharian
Matuman ang imo buot
Diri sa duta subong sang sa langit
Hatagan mo kami nian sing kan-on namon
Sa matag-adlaw
Kag ipatawad mo ang mga sala namon
Subong nga ginapatawad namon ang nakasala sa amon
Kag dili mo kami nga ipagpadaug sa mga panulay
Gino-o luwason mo kami sa kalaut
Amen.

Universal Declaration of Human Rights

Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (Ang Kalibutanon nga Pahayag sang mga Katarungang Pangkataohan)

“ Ang tanan nga tao ginbun-ag nga hilway kag may pag-alalangay sa dungog kag katarungan. Sila ginhatagan sang pagpamat-od kag konsensya kag nagakadapat nga magbinuligay sa kahulugan sang pag-inuturay. ”
“ Every person is born free and equal with honor and rights. They are given reason and conscience and they must always trust each other for the spirit of brotherhood. ”

Children's books

Ang Bukid Nga Nagpalangga Sang Pispis

Ang Bukid Nga Nagpalangga Sang Pispis is a fully illustrated, colored children's picture book. The original story is The Mountain That Loved A Bird by Alice McLerran. Originally published in the United States with illustrations by Eric Carle, the story has been translated to Hiligaynon by Genevieve L. Asenjo and illustrated with new art by Beaulah Pedregosa Taguiwalo drawn from the landscapes of the Philippines.

The publisher is Mother Tongue Publishing Inc.[1], a new publishing company based in Manila, Philippines formed in November 2006 by Mario and Beaulah Taguiwalo. Their mission is to publish books in as many languages as possible. They are inspired by the words of science fiction writer Ursula K. Le Guin: “Literature takes shape and life in the body, in the wombs of the mother tongue.” They also agree with neuro-scientist Elkhonon Goldberg who refers to mother tongues as “an extremely adaptive and powerful device for modeling not only what is, but also what will be, what could be, and what we want and do not want to be.”

See also

Noted Hiligaynon Writers

References

  1. ^ a b Philippine Census, 2000. Table 11. Household Population by Ethnicity, Sex and Region: 2000
  2. ^ Lewis, M. Paul (2009). "Hiligaynon". http://www.ethnologue.com/. http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=hil. Retrieved July 23, 2011. 
  3. ^ "Islas de los Pintados: The Visayan Islands". http://www.admu.edu.ph. http://www.admu.edu.ph/offices/mirlab/panublion/islas.html. Retrieved January 3, 2011. 
  4. ^ Asenjo, Genevieve. "Wondrous Mushroom in Alice’s Wonderland". http://www.english-to-tagalog.com/. http://www.english-to-tagalog.com/Genevieve-Asenjo.html. Retrieved January 3, 2011. 
  5. ^ "My Working Language Pairs". http://www.bj-informatique.com/. http://www.bj-informatique.com/langtrad.php. Retrieved January 3, 2011. 
  6. ^ Gómez Rivera, Guillermo (April 10, 2001). "The evolution of the native Tagalog alphabet". Philippines: Emanila Community (emanila.com). Views & Reviews. Archived from the original on August 3, 2010. http://www.webcitation.org/5rhjRPCO9. Retrieved August 15, 2010. 
  7. ^ Signey, Richard. Philippine Journal of Linguistics. Manila, Philippines: Linguistic Society of the Philippines. The Evolution and Disappearance of the "Ğ" in Tagalog orthography since the 1593 Doctrina Cristiana. ISSN 0048-3796. OCLC 1791000. http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=18813686. Retrieved August 15, 2010. 
  8. ^ Wolfenden, Elmer (1971). Hiligaynon Reference Grammar. Hawaii: University of Hawaii Press. pp. 61–67. ISBN 0-8702-2867-6. 
  9. ^ Motus, Cecile (1971). Hiligaynon Lessons. University of Hawaii Press. pp. 112–4. ISBN 0-870-22546-4. 
  10. ^ Wolfenden, Elmer (1971). Hiligaynon Reference Grammar. University of Hawaii Press. pp. 136–7. ISBN 0-870-22867-6. 
  11. ^ Spitz, Walter L. (February 1997), Lost Causes: Morphological Causative Constructions in Two Philippine Languages, Digital Scholarship Archive, Rice University, pp. 513, http://scholarship.rice.edu/handle/1911/19215 
  12. ^ Spitz, Walter L. (February 1997), Lost Causes: Morphological Causative Constructions in Two Philippine Languages, Digital Scholarship Archive, Rice University, pp. 514, http://scholarship.rice.edu/handle/1911/19215 
  13. ^ Spitz, Walter L. (February 1997), Lost Causes: Morphological Causative Constructions in Two Philippine Languages, Digital Scholarship Archive, Rice University, pp. 514–515, http://scholarship.rice.edu/handle/1911/19215 

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