History of Senegal

The History of Senegal is commonly divided into a number of periods, encompassing the prehistoric era, the precolonial period, colonialism, and the contemporary era.

Contents

Prehistory and Protohistory

See also: fr:Préhistoire et protohistoire du Sénégal

Paleolithic

As we know now, according to Abdoulaye Camara, men appeared in Senegal 350000 years ago.[1] The earliest evidence of human life is found in the valley of the Faleme in the south-east.[2]

The remains found there are threatened not only by the acidity of the soil in West Africa that destroys the bones, but also by tourists on the , the machines used for the mining of phosphates in the Thiès Region, and vegetable crops and the increasing urbanization in the peninsula of Cap Vert.[3] However, the presence of man in the Lower Paleolithic is attested by the discovery of stone tools characteristic of Acheulean such as hand axes reported by Théodore Monod [4] at the tip of Fann in the peninsula of Cap-Vert in 1938, or cleavers found in the south-east.[5] There were also found stones shaped by the Levallois technique, characteristic of the Middle Paleolithic. Mousterian Industry is represented mainly by scrapers found in the peninsula of Cap-Vert, as well in the low and middle valleys of the Senegal and the Faleme. Some pieces are explicitly linked to hunting, like those found in Tiémassass, near Mbour, a controversial site that some claim belongs to the Upper Paleolithic,[6] while other argue in favor of the Neolithic.[7]

Neolithic

In the Senegambia the period when humans became hunters, fishermen are producers (farmer and artisan) are all well represented and studied. This is when more elaborate objects and ceramics[8] emerged. But gray areas remain. Although the characteristics and manifestations of civilization from the Neolithic have been identified their origins and relationship have not yet fully defined. What can be distinguish is:

Protohistory

In the case of Senegal, the periodization of prehistory remains controversial. Indeed, one often begins it at the age of metallurgy, thus placing it between the first metalworking and the appearance of writing. This definition, however, seems somewhat Eurocentric adapted to African realities. Therefore, other approaches must be take into account, such as Guy Thilmans and his team in 1980,[13] who felt that any archeology from pre-colonial could be attached to that designation or that of Hamady Bocoum, who speaks of "Historical Archaeology" from the 4th century, at least for the former Tekrur.[14] Evin if the debate is not settled yet, the abundance of such remains is not in doubt, especially in western countries, in river valleys and near the border with Gambia.

Four sets can be distinguished:

.

Kingdoms and Empires

The region of modern Senegal was a part of the larger region called Upper Guinea by European traders. In the absence of written sources and monumental ruins in this region, the history of the early centuries of our era must be based primarily on archaeological excavations, the writing of early geographers and travelers, written in Arabic and data derived from oral tradition. Combining these data suggests that Senegal was first populated from the north and east (probably from current-day Egypt, as suggested by the work of Professor Cheikh Anta Diop), in several waves of migration, the last being that of the Wolof, the Fulani and the Serer. Probable descendants of Bafours were pushed southward by the Berber dynasty of Almoravids.

Before the arrival of European settlers, the history of the Saharan region is mainly characterized by the consolidation of settlements in large state entities – the Ghana Empire, the Mali Empire and the Songhai Empire. The cores of these great empires were located on the territory of the current Republic of Mali, so current-day Senegal occupied a peripheral position.[30]

The earliest of these empires is that of Ghana, probably founded in the first millennium by Soninke and whose animists populations subsisted by agriculture and trade across the Sahara,[31] including gold, salt and cloth. Its area of influence slowly spread to regions between the river valleys of the Senegal and Niger.

A contemporary empire of Ghana, but less extensive, the kingdom of Tekrur was its vassal. Ghana and Tekrur were the only organized populations before Islamization. The territory of Tekrur approximates that of the current Fouta Toro. Its existence in the ninth century is attested by Arabic manuscripts, but it could have gone back to the beginning of the Christian era, according to historian Joseph Ki-Zerbo.[32] Other sources attribute the foundation of Tekrur to the Dia Ogo (or Dyago) dynasty, from the north.[33] The name, borrowed from Arabic writings, may be linked to that of the ethnicity Toucouleur.[34] However, according to historical and archaeological sources, the kingdom was founded by the Serer people who build civilisations there, ruled it and set up a Priestly Class (Saltigue).[35] Trade with the Arabs was prevalent. The Kingdom imported wool, copper and pearls and exported gold and slaves.[36] Indeed the growth of a vast empire by Arab-Muslim Jihads is not devoid of economic and political issues and brought in its wake the first real growth of the slave trade. This trade called the Arab slave trade provided North Africa and Saharan Africa with slave labor. The Tekrur were among the first converts to the Islam, certainly before 1040.[37]

Two other major political entities were formed and grew during the thirteenth and fourteenth century: the Mali Empire and the empire of Djolof which become the vassal of the first in its heyday. Originating in the Mandinka invasion, Mali continued to expand, encompassing first eastern Senegal, and later almost all the present territory. Founded in the 14th century by the Chief of the Wolof Ndiadiane Ndiaye,[38] who was a Serer of Waalo (Ndiaye is originally a Serer surname which Wolof people adopted).[21][39] [40][41][42] Mam Kumba Njie (or Ndiaye) is a Serer Goddess in the Serer religion a religion which predates Islam by thousands of years as well as the Almoravid invasion of Tekrur.[43] [44] Djolof expanded its dominance of small chiefdoms south of the Senegal River (Waalo, Cay Baol, Sine – Saloum), bringing together all the Senegambia to which he gave religious and social unity: the "Grand Djolof" [45] which collapsed in 1550.

The arrival of Europeans engendered autonomy of small kingdoms which were under the influence of Djolof. Less dependent on trans-Saharan trade with the new shipping lanes, they turn more readily to trade with the New World. The decline of these kingdoms can be explained by internal rivalries, then by the arrival of Europeans, who organized the mass exodus of young Africans to the New World.[46] Ghazis, wars, epidemics and famine afflicted the people, while the powerful practice of the Atlantic slave trade, in exchange for weapons and manufactured goods. Under the influence of Islam, these kingdoms were transformed and marabouts played an increasing role.

In Casamance, the Baïnounks, the Manjaques and Diola inhabited the coastal area while the mainland – unified thirteenth century under the name of Gabou – was occupied by the Mandingo. In the fifteenth century, the king of one of the tribes, Kassas gave his name to the region: Kassa Mansa (King of Kassas). Until the French intervention The Casamance was a heterogeneous entity, weakened by internal rivalries.[47]

The era of trading posts and trafficking

See also: Age of Discovery  and Triangular Trade

According to several ancient sources, including occasions by the 'Dictionnaire de pédagogie et d'instruction primaire by Ferdinand Buisson in 1887,[48] the first French settlement in Senegal dates back to the Dieppe Mariners in the fourteenth century. Flattering for Norman sailors, this argument gives credence also to the idea of a precedence of the French presence in the region, but it is not confirmed by subsequent work.

In the mid-fifteenth century several European nations reached the coast of West Africa, vested successively or simultaneously by the Portuguese, the Dutchman, the English and French. Europeans first settled along the coasts, on islands in the mouths of rivers and then a little further upstream. They opened trading posts and engaged in the "trade:" – a term which, under the Ancien Régime, means any type of trade (wheat, pepper ivory…), and not necessarily, or only the slave trade,[49] although this "infamous traffic," as it was called at the end of the eighteenth century, was indeed at the heart of a new economic order, controlled by powerful companies in privilege.

The Portuguese navigators

Portuguese Empire Encouraged by Henry the Navigator and always in search of the Passage to India, and not forgetting gold and slaves, Portuguese explorers explored the African coast and ventured still farther south.[50]

In 1444 Dinis Dias went off the mouth of the Senegal River to reach the westernmost point of Africa he calls Cabo Verde, Cape Vert,[51] because of the lush vegetation seen there. He also reached the island of Gorée, referred to by its inhabitants as Berzeguiche, but which he called Ilha de Palma, the island of Palms. The Portuguese did not settle there permanently, but used the site for landing and engaged in commerce in the region. They built a chapel there in 1481.[52] Portuguese trading posts were installed in Tanguegueth [53] in Cay, a town they renamed Fresco Rio (the future Rufisque) because of the freshness of its sources in the Baol Sali (later the seaside town of Saly) which takes the name of Portudal, or to Joal in the Kingdom of Sine.

They also traversed the lower Casamance [54] and founded Ziguinchor in 1645. The introduction of Christianity accompanied this business expansion.

The Dutch West India Company

See also: Dutch colonial empire

After the Act of Abjuration in 1581, the United Provinces flouted the authority of the King of Spain. They based their growth on maritime trade and expanded their colonial empire in Asia, the Americas and the South Africa. In West Africa trading posts were opened at some points of the current Senegal, Gambia, Ghana and Angola.

Created in 1621, the Dutch West India Company purchased the island of Gorée in 1627.[55] The company built two forts that are in ruins today: in 1628 on the face of Nassau Cove and 1639 at Nassau on the hill, as well as warehouses for goods destined for the mainland trading posts .

In his Description of Africa(1668), the humanist Dutch Olfert Dapper gives the etymology of the name given to it by his countrymen,Goe-ree Goede Reede, that is to say "good road".[56]

The Dutch settlers occupied the island for nearly half a century, but were dislodged several times: in 1629 by the Portuguese, in 1645 and 1659 by the French and in 1663 by the British troops. They dealt inwax, amber, gold, ivory and also participated in the slave trade, but kept away from trading posts on the coast.

Against the backdrop of Anglo-French rivalry

The "trade" and the slave trade intensified in the seventeenth century. In Senegal, the French and English competed mainly on two issues, the island of Gorée and St. Louis. On 10 February 1763 the Treaty of Paris ended the Seven Years' War and reconciled, after three years of negotiations, France, Great Britain and Spain. Great Britain returned the island of Gorée to France, but now the premere colonial power, it acquired, among many other territories, "the river of Senegal, with forts & trading posts St. Louis, Podor, and Galam and all rights & dependencies of the said River of Senegal.".[57]

Under Louis XIII and especially Louis XIV, the privileges were quite extensively granted to certain French shipping lines, which still faced many difficulties. In 1626 Richelieu founded the Norman Company, an association of Dieppe and Rouen merchants responsible for the operation in Senegal and The Gambia. It was dissolved in 1658 and its assets were acquired by the Company of Cape Vert and Senegal, itself expropriated following the creation by Colbert in 1664 of the French West India Company. The Company of Senegal was in turn founded by Colbert in 1673. It became the major tool of French colonialism in Senegal, but saddled with debt, it was dissolved 1681 and replaced by another that lasted until 1694, the date of creation of the Royal Company of Senegal, whose director, Andre Brue, would be captured by the Damel of Cay and released against ransom in 1701. A third Company of Senegal was founded in 1709 and lasted until 1718. On the British side, the monopoly of trade with Africa was granted to the Royal African Company in 1698.

Grand Master of the naval war of Louis XIV, Admiral Jean Estrées seized Gorée on November 1, 1677. The island was taken up by the English on February 4, 1693 before being again occupied by the French four months later. In 1698 the Director of the Company of Senegal, Andre Brue, restored the fortifications. But Gorée became English once again in the middle of the 18th century.

The excellent location of St. Louis caught the attention of English who occupied it three times for a few months in 1693, then during the Seven Years' War of 1758 until it was taken by the Duc de Lauzun in 1779, lastly 1809 in 1816.

In 1783 the Treaty of Versailles returned Senegal to France. The monopoly of gum acacia is licensed to Senegal Company.

Appointed governor in 1785, Knight Boufflers focuses for two years to enhance the colony, while engaged in the smuggling of gum arabic and gold with signares.

In 1789 people of St. Louis write a List of Complaints. The same year the French were driven out of Fort St. Joseph in Galam and kingdom of Galam.

A trading economy

The Europeans were sometimes disappointed because they hoped to find more gold in West Africa, but when the development of plantations in the Americas, mainly in the Caribbean, in Brazil and in the south of the United States raised a great need for cheap labor, the area received more attention. The Papacy who had sometimes opposed to the slavery, did not condemn it explicitly to the end of the seventeenth century; in fact the Church itself has an interest in the colonial system. Traffic of "ebony" is also an issue for warriors who traditionally reduces the vanquished to slavery, some people specialized in the slave trade – in the case of Dyula in West Africa – states and kingdoms also competed, as well as private traders who became much richer in the triangular trade, although some shipments sometimes resulted in real financial disaster. Politico-military instability in the region was compounded by the slave trade.

The Black Code, enacted in 1685, regulated the trafficking of slaves in the American colonies.

In Senegal, trading posts were established in Gorée, St. Louis, Rufisque, Portudal and Joal and the upper valley of the Senegal River, including Fort St. Joseph Galam was in the eighteenth century a French engine of trafficking in Senegambia.

In parallel, a mestizo society develops in St. Louis and Gorée.

Slavery was abolished by the National Convention in 1794, then reinstated by Bonaparte in 1802. Abolished in the British Empire in 1833, in France it was finally abolished in the Second Republic in 1848, under the leadership of Victor Schoelcher.

The progressive weakening of the colony

In 1815 The Congress of Vienna condemned slavery. But this does not change much economically for the Africans.

After the departure of Governor Schmaltz (he had taken office at the end of the wreck of the Medusa), Roger Baron particularly encourages the development of the peanut, "the earth pistachio", whose monoculture would be long because of the severe economic backwardness of Senegal. Despite the ferocity of the Baron, the company is a failure.

The colonization of the Casamance also continued. The island of Carabane, acquired by France in 1836, was profoundly transformed between 1849 and 1857 by the resident Emmanuel Bertrand Bocandé, Nantes businessman.

Modern Colonialism

Main article: French conquest of Senegal

Various European powers – Portugal, the Netherlands, and England – competed for trade in the area from the 15th century onward, until in 1677, France ended up in possession of what had become a minor slave trade departure point—the infamous island of Gorée next to modern Dakar.[58][59] In 1758 the French settlement was captured by a British expedition as part of the Seven Years' War, but was later returned to France. It was only in the 1850s that the French, under the governor, Louis Faidherbe, began to expand their foothold onto the Senegalese mainland, at the expense of the native kingdoms.

Independence

In January 1959, Senegal and the French Sudan merged to form the Mali Federation, which became fully independent on 20 June 1960, as a result of the independence and the transfer of power agreement signed with France on 4 April 1960. Due to internal political difficulties, the Federation broke up on 20 August 1960. Senegal and Soudan (renamed the Republic of Mali) proclaimed independence. Léopold Senghor, internationally known poet, politician, and statesman, was elected Senegal's first president in August 1960.

The 1960s and early 70s saw the continued and persistent violationg of Senegal's borders by the Portugese military from Portuguese Guinea. In response, Senegal petitioned the United Nations Security Council in in 1963, 1965, 1969 (in response to shelling by Portugese artillery), 1971 and finally in 1972.

After the breakup of the Mali Federation, President Senghor and Prime Minister Mamadou Dia governed together under a parliamentary system. In December 1962, their political rivalry led to an attempted coup by Prime Minister Dia. The coup was put down without bloodshed and Dia was arrested and imprisoned. Senegal adopted a new constitution that consolidated the President’s power.

Senghor was considerably more tolerant of opposition than most African regimes became in the 1960s. Nonetheless, political activity was somewhat restricted for a time. Senghor's party, the Senegalese Progressive Union (now the Socialist Party of Senegal, was the only legally permitted party until 1973.

In 1980, President Senghor retired from politics, and handed power over to his handpicked successor, Abdou Diouf, in 1981.

1980–2006

Senegal joined with The Gambia to form the nominal confederation of Senegambia on 1 February 1982. However, the envisaged integration of the two countries was never carried out, and the union was dissolved in 1989. Despite peace talks, a southern separatist group in the Casamance region has clashed sporadically with government forces since 1982. Senegal has a long history of participating in international peacekeeping.

Abdou Diouf was president between 1981 and 2000. He encouraged broader political participation, reduced government involvement in the economy, and widened Senegal's diplomatic engagements, particularly with other developing nations. Domestic politics on occasion spilled over into street violence, border tensions, and a violent separatist movement in the southern region of the Casamance. Nevertheless, Senegal's commitment to democracy and human rights has strengthened over time. Diouf served four terms as President. In the presidential election of 2000, he was defeated in a free and fair election by opposition leader Abdoulaye Wade. Senegal experienced its second peaceful transition of power, and its first from one political party to another.

On 30 December 2004 President Abdoulaye Wade announced that he would sign a peace treaty with two separatist factions of the Movement of Democratic Forces of Casamance (MFDC) in the Casamance region. This will end West Africa's longest-running civil conflict. As of late 2006, it seemed the peace treaty was holding, as both factions and the Senegalese military appeared to honor the treaty. With recognized prospects for peace, refugees began returning home from neighboring Guinea-Bissau. However, at the beginning of 2007, refugees began fleeing again, as the sight of Senegalese troops rekindled fears of a new outbreak of violence between the separatists and the government.

See also

References

  1. ^ In Abdoulaye Camara, "Towards a New Policy to Protect Sites and Monuments," in Claude Daniel Ardouin (ed.),"Museums and Archeology in West Africa", Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C. ; James Currey Publishers, London, 1996, 178 pages
  2. ^ Unless otherwise stated, the material in this part is based on Ndiouga Benga and on Mandiomé Thiam, "prehistory prehistory and history", in Atlas du Sénégal, op. cit., p. 74
  3. ^ (English) Abdoulaye Camara, loc. cit., p. 83
  4. ^ (French) Théodore Monod, « Sur la découverte du Paléolithique ancien à Dakar », Bulletin du Comité d'études historiques et scientifiques de l'AOF, t. XXI, 1938, pp. 518-519
  5. ^ (French) Abdoulaye Camara et Bertrand Duboscq, La préhistoire dans le Sud-Est du Sénégal, Actes du 2e Colloque de Kédougou, 18–22 fév. 1985, Doc. du CRA du Musée de l'Homme (Paris), n° 11, 1987, pp. 19-48
  6. ^ (French) Th. Dagan, « Le Site préhistorique de Tiémassas (Sénégal) », Bulletin de l'Institut français d'Afrique noire, 1956, pp. 432-448
  7. ^ (French) Cyr Descamps, « Quelques réflexions sur le Néolithique du Sénégal », West African Journal of Archaeology, 1981, vol. 10–11, pp. 145-151
  8. ^ (French) Mandiomé Thiam, La céramique au Sénégal : Archéologie et Histoire, Université de Paris I, 1991, 464 pages (thèse de doctorat)
  9. ^ (French) « Le gisement du Cap Manuel », conférence de Cyr Descamps, en ligne [1]
  10. ^ (Spanish) « Prehistoria de África: Manifestaciones artísticas. Esculturas. Senegal » [2]
  11. ^ (French) Marie-Amy Mbow, « Le site archéologique du Khant (région de Saint-Louis du Sénégal) : nouveaux éléments », Présence africaine, 1998, n° 158, pp. 7-22
  12. ^ a b (French) "Arrêté n° 12.09.2007 portant publication de la liste des sites et monuments historiques classés". Ministre de la Culture et du Patrimoine historique classé. 12 septembre 2007. http://www.culture.gouv.sn/article.php3?id_article=335. Retrieved 2 juillet 2008. 
  13. ^ (French) Guy Thilmans, Cyr Descamps et B. Khayat, Protohistoire du Sénégal : recherches archéologiques, tome 1 : Les Sites Mégalithiques, IFAN, Dakar, 1980, 158 pages
  14. ^ See his third thesis supported at the Sorbonne in 1986, La Métallurgie du fer au Sénégal et ses travaux des années 1990 on this topic
  15. ^ (French) Edmond Dioh et Mathieu Gueye, « Les amas coquilliers de la lagune de Joal-Fadiouth (région de Thiès) », dans Senegalia, op. cit., pp. 323-328
  16. ^ (French) Annie Ravisé, Contribution à l’étude des Kjökkenmöddinger (amas artificiels de coquillages) dans la région de Saint-Louis, Dakar, Université de Dakar, 1969 (mémoire de Maîtrise)
  17. ^ (English) Olga Linares de Sapir, « Shell middens of lower Casamance and problems of Diola protohistory », West African Journal of Archaeology, Oxford University Press, Ibadan, 1971, vol. I, pp. 23-54
  18. ^ (French) Amadou Abdoulaye Seck, « L'arche (Anadara senilis L.) espèce dominante des amas coquilliers du Sénégal », Senegalia, op. cit., pp. 319-322
  19. ^ (French) Jean-Léopold Diouf, Dictionnaire wolof-français et français-wolof, Karthala, Paris, 2003, p. 216
  20. ^ Vestiges historiques, trémoins matériels du passé clans les pays sereer". Dakar. 1993. Charles BECKER, CNRS - ORS TO M
  21. ^ a b Ebou Momar Taal, Senegambian Ethnic Groups: Common Origins and Cultural Affinities Factors and Forces of National Unity, Peace and Stability. 2010
  22. ^ David P. Gamble & Linda K. Salmon with Alhaji Hassan Njie, Gambian Studies No. 17. People of The Gambia. I. The Wolof San Francisco 1985.
  23. ^ (French) Aline Robert, « Les sources écrites européennes du XVe au XIXe s. : un apport complémentaire pour la connaissance du passé africain », VIIe Colloque euroafricain, Milan 1998 [3]
  24. ^ (French) Raymond Mauny, Tableau géographique de l'Ouest africain au Moyen-Âge d'après les sources écrites, la tradition et l'archéologie, Swets et Zeitlinger, Amsterdam, 1967, p. 163
  25. ^ (French) "Cercles mégalithiques de Sénégambie". UNESCO. http://whc.unesco.org/fr/list/1226. Retrieved 2 juillet 2008. 
  26. ^ (French) Augustin Holl et Hamady Bocoum, « Variabilité des pratiques funéraires dans le mégalithisme sénégambien : le cas de Sine Ngayène », dans Senegalia, op. cit., pp. 224-234
  27. ^ (French) Bruno Chavane, Recherches archéologiques dans la moyenne vallée du fleuve Sénégal, 1979 (thèse)
  28. ^ (French) Guy Thilmans, « Les disques perforés en céramique des sites protohistoriques du fleuve Sénégal », Notes africaines, n° 162, 1979, pp. 29-35
  29. ^ (French) Guy Thilmans et Annie Ravisé, Protohistoire du Sénégal, Recherches archéologique, tome II, Sinthiou-Bara et les sites du Fleuve, 1983, Dakar, 213 pages (mémoire IFAN)
  30. ^ (French) Gerti Hesseling, Histoire politique du Sénégal. Institutions, droit et société, Karthala, Paris, 1985, p. 103
  31. ^ (French) Mahamadou Maiga, Le bassin du fleuve Sénégal – De la traite négrière au développement sous-régional autocentré, Paris, L’Harmattan, 1995, p. 20
  32. ^ (French) Gerti Hesseling, op. cit., p. 104
  33. ^ (French) Histoire de l'Afrique de l'Ouest [4]
  34. ^ (French) « Discussion sur les croisements ethniques », séance du 2 février 1865, Bulletin de la société d’anthropologie, tome 6, fasc. 4, p. 67
  35. ^ Henry Gravrand. La Civilisation Sereer - Pangool. Published by Les Nouvelles Editions Africaines du Senegal. 1990. Page 9. ISBN 2-7236-1055-1
  36. ^ (French) Gerti Hesseling, op. cit., p. 104
  37. ^ (French) Raymond Mauny, op. cit., p. 523
  38. ^ (French) Samba Lampsar Sall, Njajaan Njaay. Les mythes de fondation de l’Empire du Djolof, Dakar, Université de Dakar, 1982, 157 pages (Mémoire de Maîtrise)
  39. ^ William J. Foltz. From French West Africa to the Mali Federation, Volume 12 of Yale studies in political science, p136. Published by Yale University Press, 1965
  40. ^ Both Ndiadiane name and surname are Serer in origin. For the surname Njie or Ndiaye which Ndiadiane Ndiaye got his name from see Cheikh Anta Diop and Egbuna P. Modum. "Towards the African renaissance: essays in African culture & development", 1946-1960, p28. Published by Karnak House (1996). ISBN 0907015859
  41. ^ The name comes from the Serer language. See: Victoria Bomba Coifman. History of the Wolof state of Jolof until 1860 including comparative data from the Wolof state of Walo, p276. Published by University of Wisconsin - Madison, 1969
  42. ^ See also: Godfrey Mwakikagile. Gambia and Its People: Ethnic Identities and Cultural Integration in Africa, p94
  43. ^ For the Serer Goddess Mam Kumba Njie and Serer religion, see: Henry Gravrand. La Civilisation Sereer, Pangool. See also
  44. ^ *Ed Hindson & Ergun Caner. The Popular Encyclopedia of Apologetics: Surveying the Evidence for the Truth of Christianity. Page 21. Harvest House Publishers, 2008. ISBN 0736920846
  45. ^ (French) Jean Boulègue, Le grand Jolof, XIIIe-XVIe siècle, vol. 1 : Les Anciens Royaumes Wolof, Façades, Blois ; Karthala, Paris, 207 pages
  46. ^ (French) Gerti Hesseling, op. cit., p. 105
  47. ^ (French) Djibril Diop, Décentralisation et gouvernance locale au Sénégal. Quelle pertinence pour le développement local ?, L'Harmattan, Paris, 2006, p. 29
  48. ^ (French) Ferdinand Édouard Buisson, Dictionnaire de pédagogie et d'instruction primaire, 1887, p. 442
  49. ^ (French) Olivier Pétré-Grenouilleau, Les traites négrières. Documentation photographique, La Documentation française, n° 8032, 2003
  50. ^ (French) Joseph Roger de Benoist et Abdoulaye Camara (et. al.), Histoire de Gorée, Maisonneuve et Larose, Paris, 2003, p. 12
  51. ^ This place corresponds to the area of Cape Vert in Senegal today and not to the îles du Cap-Vert which aren't discovered until 1456.
  52. ^ (French) Joseph Roger de Benoist et Abdoulaye Camara, op. cit., p. 15 and p. 139
  53. ^ (French) Abbé David Boilat, « Notice sur Tanguegueth ou Rufisque », Esquisses sénégalaises, Karthala, Paris, 1984 (1st éd. 1853), p. 55
  54. ^ (French) Christian Roche, Histoire de la Casamance. Conquête et résistance : 1850–1920, Karthala, Paris, 1985 (1st éd. 1976), p. 67
  55. ^ The date of 1617, cited by Olfert Dapper in Description de l'Afrique contenant les noms, la situation & les confins de toutes ses parties, leurs rivières, leurs villes & leurs habitations, leurs plantes & leurs animaux : les moeurs, les coutumes, la langue, les richesses, la religion & le gouvernement de ses peuples : avec des cartes des États, des provinces & des villes, & des figures en taille-douce, qui representent les habits & les principales cérémonies des habitants, les plantes & les animaux les moins connus, W. Waesberge, Boom et Van Someren, Amsterdam, édition de 1686, p. 229, is reprised in many sources. Implausible, given thé date of creation of the company, it is challenged by two historians of Gorée: J.-R. de Benoist et A. Camara, op. cit., pp. 15-18
  56. ^ (French) Olfert Dapper, op. cit., p. 229
  57. ^ Wikisource: Article 10 of the Treaty of Paris of 1763 Treaty of Paris(1763)
  58. ^ "Goree and the Atlantic Slave Trade", Philip Curtin, History Net, accessed 9 Jul 2008
  59. ^ Les Guides Bleus: Afrique de l'Ouest(1958 ed.), p. 123

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