| Composition | Elementary particle |
|---|---|
| Statistics | Bosonic |
| Interactions | Gravitation |
| Status | theoretical |
| Symbol | G[1] |
| Antiparticle | Self |
| Theorized | 1930s[2] The name is attributed to Dmitrii Blokhintsev and F.M. Gal'perin in 1934[3] |
| Discovered | hypothetical |
| Mass | 0 |
| Mean lifetime | Stable |
| Electric charge | 0 e |
| Spin | 2 |
In physics, the graviton is a hypothetical elementary particle that mediates the force of gravitation in the framework of quantum field theory. If it exists, the graviton must be massless (because the gravitational force has unlimited range) and must have a spin of 2. This is because the source of gravitation is the stress-energy tensor, a second-rank tensor, compared to electromagnetism, the source of which is the four-current, a first-rank tensor. Additionally, it can be shown that any massless spin-2 field would be indistinguishable from gravitation, because a massless spin-2 field must couple to (interact with) the stress-energy tensor in the same way that the gravitational field does.[4] This result suggests that if a massless spin-2 particle is discovered, it must be the graviton, so that the only experimental verification needed for the graviton may simply be the discovery of a massless spin-2 particle.[5]
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Gravitons are postulated because of the great success of quantum field theory (in particular, the Standard Model) at modeling the behavior of all other known forces of nature as being mediated by elementary particles: electromagnetism by the photon, the strong interaction by the gluons, and the weak interaction by the W and Z bosons. The hypothesis is that the gravitational interaction is likewise mediated by a – yet undiscovered – elementary particle, dubbed the graviton. In the classical limit, the theory would reduce to general relativity and conform to Newton's law of gravitation in the weak-field limit.[6][7][8]
When describing graviton interactions, the classical theory (i.e. the tree diagrams) and semiclassical corrections (one-loop diagrams) behave normally, but Feynman diagrams with two (or more) loops lead to ultraviolet divergences; that is, infinite results that cannot be removed because the quantized general relativity is not renormalizable, unlike quantum electrodynamics. That is, the usual ways physicists calculate the probability that a particle will emit or absorb a graviton give nonsensical answers and the theory loses its predictive power. These problems, together with some conceptual puzzles, led many physicists to believe that a theory more complete than just general relativity must regulate the behavior near the Planck scale.
Unlike the force carriers of the other forces, gravitation plays a special role in general relativity in defining the spacetime in which events take place. Because it does not depend on a particular space-time background, general relativity is said to be background independent. In contrast, the Standard Model is not background independent.[9] A theory of quantum gravity is needed in order to reconcile these differences.[10] Whether this theory should be background independent or not is an open question. The answer to this question will determine if gravitation plays a special role in the universe.[11]
String theory predicts the existence of gravitons and their well-defined interactions. A graviton in perturbative string theory is a closed string in a very particular low-energy vibrational state. The scattering of gravitons in string theory can also be computed from the correlation functions in conformal field theory, as dictated by the AdS/CFT correspondence, or from Matrix theory.
An interesting feature of gravitons in string theory is that, as closed strings without endpoints, they would not be bound to branes and could move freely between them. If we live on a brane (as hypothesized by some theorists) this "leakage" of gravitons from the brane into higher-dimensional space could explain why gravitation is such a weak force, and gravitons from other branes adjacent to our own could provide a potential explanation for dark matter. See brane cosmology.
Unambiguous detection of individual gravitons, though not prohibited by any fundamental law, is impossible with any physically reasonable detector.[12] The reason is the extremely low cross section for the interaction of gravitons with matter. For example, a detector with the mass of Jupiter and 100% efficiency, placed in close orbit around a neutron star, would only be expected to observe one graviton every 10 years, even under the most favorable conditions. It would be impossible to discriminate these events from the background of neutrinos, since the dimensions of the required neutrino shield would ensure collapse into a black hole.[12]
However, experiments to detect gravitational waves, which may be viewed as coherent states of many gravitons, are underway (e.g. LIGO and VIRGO). Although these experiments cannot detect individual gravitons, they might provide information about certain properties of the graviton. For example, if gravitational waves were observed to propagate slower than c (the speed of light in a vacuum), that would imply that the graviton has mass.[13]
Theories containing gravitons suffer from severe problems. For example, attempts to extend the Standard Model with gravitons have run into serious theoretical difficulties at high energies (processes with energies close to or above the Planck scale) because of infinities arising due to quantum effects (in technical terms, gravitation is nonrenormalizable). Since classical general relativity and quantum mechanics are incompatible at such energies, from a theoretical point of view the present situation is not tenable.[14] Some proposed models of quantum gravity[15] attempt to address these issues, but these are speculative theories.
String theory, in which the graviton is more or less justified, suffers from the landscape and background independence problems.
Thus, not all theories agree upon the existence of gravitons. For instance, superfluid vacuum theory calls into question whether such objects may indeed exist in Nature.[16][17] Indeed, according to this approach, curved spacetime itself is the small collective excitation of the superfluid background; therefore, the graviton, if it existed, would in fact be the "small fluctuation of the small fluctuation" - which does not look like a physically robust concept (as if somebody tried to introduce small fluctuations inside phonons, for instance, or re-quantize them). As a result, it may be not just a coincidence that in general relativity the gravitational field alone has no well-defined stress-energy tensor, only the pseudotensor one.[18]
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