Filipino American

Filipino American
Total population
3,416,840[1] - 4 million[2]
1%- 1.5% of the US population (2010)
Regions with significant populations
California,[3] Hawaii,[4] Illinois,[5] New Jersey,[6] New York,[7] Washington,[8] Texas,[9] Florida,[10] and other areas[11]
Languages

American English, Philippine English, Filipino, Tagalog, Cebuano, Ilocano, Ilonggo, Bicolano, Waray, Kapampangan, Pangasinanes, and others.[12]
Religion

Predominantly Roman Catholic; minorities of Protestantism, Aglipayan, Islam, and others.[12]

Filipino Americans are Americans of Filipino ancestry, sometimes shortened to "Fil-Ams",[13] or "Pinoy",[14] There are about 3.4 million Filipinos in the U.S. as of the 2010 census (20% of the overall Asian-American population), making them the second largest Asian ethnic group after Chinese Americans. The Philippines is also one of the major sources of immigration into the United States.

Filipinos in what is now the United States were first documented in the 16th century, with small settlements beginning in the 18th century. Mass migration did not begin until the early 20th Century when the Philippines was ceded by Spain to the United States in the Treaty of Paris. The Philippines' independence recognized by the United States on July 4, 1946. Immigration was reduced significantly during the 1930s, except for those who served in the United States Navy, and increased following immigration reform in the 1960s.

Contents

Demographics

Population

The Filipino American community is the second largest Asian American group in the United States with a population of over 3.4 million as of the 2010 US Census.[15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22][23] Filipino Americans are also the largest subgroup of Overseas Filipinos.[24]

The U.S. Census Bureau reported that the 2007 American Community Survey, identified approximately 3.1 million persons as "Filipino alone or in any combination." The census also found that about 80% of the Filipino-American community are United States citizens.[25] Also in 2011, the U.S. State Department estimated the size of the Filipino American community at 4 million[2] or 1.5% of the United States population. There are no official records of Filipinos who hold dual citizenship; however, during the 2000 Census data indicated that Filipino Americans had the lowest percentage of non-citizens amongst Asian Americans, at twenty six (26) percent.[26]

Filipino Americans are the largest group of Overseas Filipinos, and the majority were born overseas; at the same time more than seventy three (73) percent are United States Citizens.[26] One in five are Multiracial Americans. Multiple languages are spoken by Filipino Americans, and the majority are Roman Catholic. A U.S. Census Bureau survey done in 2004 found that Filipino Americans had the second highest median family income amongst Asian Americans, and also had a high level of educational achievement.[27]

Intermarriage among Filipinos is not uncommon,[28] as they have the largest number of interracial marriages among Asian immigrant groups, as documented in California.[29] It is also noted that 21.8% of Filipino Americans are multiracial, second among Asian Americans.[30]

Settlement

Historical

The earliest recorded presence of Filipinos in what is today the United States is when in October 1587 mariners under Spanish command landed in Morro Bay, California.[31][32] The earliest permanent Filipino American residents arrived in the Americans in 1763,[32] later creating settlements such as Saint Malo, Manila Village in Barataria Bay, and four others in Plaquemines and Jefferson Parishes.[32] These early settlements were composed of formerly pressed sailors escaping from duty aboard Spanish galleons and were "discovered" by a Harper's Weekly journalist in 1883.[32] The last of these, Manila Village, survived until 1965 when it was destroyed by Hurricane Betsy.[33][34]

Significant immigration to the United States began in the 1900s,[35] after the Spanish-American War when the Philippines became an overseas territory of the United States, and the population became United States nationals.[36][37][38] Unlike other Asians, who were unable to immigrate to the United States due to immigrations laws of the time, Filipinos as U.S. nationals were exempt.[39][40] Filipinos, many agricultural laborers, settled primarily in the then Territory of Hawaii and California;[41][42][43] during this wave of migration Filipino men outnumbered women by about 15 to 1.[44] This migration was reduced to 50 persons a year following the Tydings-McDuffie Act which classified Filipinos as aliens, but was offset by the United States Navy's recruitment of Filipinos, who were exempt from the aforementioned quota.[17]

The War Brides Act of 1945, and subsequent Alien Fiancées and Fiancés Act of 1946,[45][46] allowed veterans,[47] to return back to the Philippines to bring back fiancées, wives, and children.[48] In the years following the war, some sixteen thousand Filipinas entered the United States as war brides.[49] That is not to say only women and children were beneficiaries of the acts for it was recorded that a lone Filipino groom immigrated during this period.[50] These new immigrants enabled the formation of a second generation of Filipino Americans that added to the Filipino American communities,[46] providing nuclear families Immigration levels would also be impacted by the independence of the Philippines from the United States, which would occur on July 4, 1946. The quota of non-naval immigration increased slightly to 100 due to the passage of the Luce–Celler Act of 1946. Thus Filipino American communities developed around United States Navy bases, whose impact can still be seen today. Filipino American communities were also settled near Army and Air Force bases.[51] In 1946 the Filipino Naturalization Act allowed for naturalization,[52] and citizenship for Filipinos who had arrived before March, 1943.[53]

Like other immigrant groups, Filipino immigrants clustered together both out of a sense of community and in response to prejudice against them. This created the first Little Manilas in urban areas.[54][55] As time passed, immigration policies changed, and prejudice diminished, leading to a decline in the presence of Little Manilas.[56] Following this Filipino immigrants trended to settle in major metropitan areas,[57] and in the West.[58] Filipino Americans had a tendency to settle in a more dispersed fashion, and to intermarry more than other Asian Americans.[59]

Population concentrations

See also: List of U.S. cities with large Filipino American populations
California

As of 2008, one out of every four Filipino Americans make their home in Southern California, numbering over 1 million.[60]

Greater Los Angeles is the metropolitan area home to the most Filipino Americans, with the population numbering around 370,000. Los Angeles County alone accounts for over 262,000 Filipinos, the most of any single county in the U.S. The City of Los Angeles designated a section of Westlake as Historic Filipinotown. Orange County also has a sizable and growing Filipino population.

As of 2000, the greater San Francisco Bay Area is home to approximately 320,000 residents of Filipino descent,[61] with the largest concentration living in Santa Clara county.[62]

San Diego County has the second largest Filipino American population of any county in the nation, with over 145 Thousand Filipinos, alone or in combination, in 2000,[63] with later claims of that number being higher.[64] In addition, San Diego is the only metropolitan area in the U.S. where Filipinos constitute the largest Asian American nationality,[63] has historically been a popular destination for Filipino immigrants, and has contributed to the growth of its population.[65] A portion of California State Route 54 in San Diego is officially named the "Filipino-American Highway", in honor of the Filipino American Community.[66]

Hawaii
Main article: Filipinos in Hawaii

In Census 2000, the state of Hawaii had a Filipino population of over 275,000.[67][68] Furthermore, Filipinos make up the third largest ethnicity amongst Asian Pacific Americans,[69] while making up the majorities of the populations of Kauai and Maui counties.[70] In June 2002, representatives from the Arroyo Administration and local leaders presided over the grand opening and dedication of the Filipino Community Center in Waipahu, Hawaiʻi.[71][72] In the 2010 census Filipino Americans became the largest Asian ethnicity in Hawaii, partially due to the falling population of Japanese Americans in the state.[73]

New York

The New York metropolitan area is home to 215,000 Filipinos.[74] It annually hosts the Philippine Independence Day Parade, which is traditionally held on the first Sunday of June at Madison Avenue.

Illinois

Illinois, specifically the Chicago metropolitan area, has 95,928 Filipino as of 2000 and amongst immigrant groups have the highest proportion of foreign born (61%);[75] with a large concentration residing in the North and Northwest sides,[76] often near hospitals.[77] Filipino migration to the Chicago area began in 1906 with the immigration of pensionados,[78] and was predominately men with a significant number of them marrying non-Filipinos, mainly Eastern or Southern European women.[79] At one point 300 of these early Chicago Filipinos worked for the Pullman Company, and overall trended to be more educated then most men of their same age in Chicago.[80] During the 1930's they were predominately in the Near South Side until the 1965 immigration reforms.[77] By the 1970s, Filipinas outnumbered Filipinos, with 9,497 total Filipinos in the Chicago Area.[76] Although not as concentrated as other Asian American groups, they are the fourth-largest ethnicity currently immigrating to the metro area.[77]

Elsewhere

Another area that has a significant Filipino American population is the Southern United States, which contains about 11% of the country's Filipinos.[81] This region includes the Hampton Roads metropolitan area where there are, as of 2000 44,576 Filipino Americans, who make up one quarter of all foreign born residents of the area.[82]

Metropolitan areas such as Atlanta, Houston, Las Vegas,[83] Phoenix, Washington, D.C.. Philadelphia and Seattle are also seeing dramatic growth in their Filipino populations.

Culture

Background

See also: History of the Philippines and Culture of the Philippines

The background of most Filipino people is of Austronesians who originated from eastern Taiwan and settled the Philippines. The history of Spanish & American rule and contact with merchants and traders culminated in a unique blend of Eastern and Western cultures, both in the appearance and culture of the people of the Philippines.[84][85][86]

Ethnic Groups: 91.5% Christian Malay, 4% Muslim Malay, 1.5% Chinese and 3% other.[84][85][86] As a result of intermarriage, many Filipinos have some Japanese, Chinese, Spanish, American, Arab, or Indian ancestry.[86]

The bayanihan or spirit of kinship and camaraderie that Filipinos are famous for, is said to be taken from Malay forefathers. The close family relations are said to have been inherited from the Chinese. The piousness comes from the Spaniards who introduced Christianity in the 16th century. Hospitality is a common denominator in the Filipino character and this is what distinguishes the Filipino. Filipino and English are constitutionally established as official languages in the country, and Filipino is designated as the national language, with English also in wide use.[87][88][89][90]

Culturally, the Philippines is a country of diverse ethnicities in Asia/Pacific. Reflecting its 333 years of Spanish rule, many Filipinos were given Hispanic surnames, have numerous occasions titled 'fiestas', and the enfused practice of the Catholic religion representing close to 90% of the entire archipelago. Some Filipinos still retain native surnames, which are characterized by repeating syllables (e.g., Cayubyub) or more frequently multi-syllabic (e.g., Lingayan). The other major religion, Islam, is prevalent in the Southern Philippines (Mindanao) and represents nearly 5% of the total Philippine population. Many Filipinos speak American English due to American colonial influence in the country's education system.

In the United States

In areas with sparse Filipino populations, Filipino Americans often form loosely-knit social organizations aimed at maintaining a "sense of family", which is a key feature of Filipino culture. Such organizations generally arrange social events, especially of a charitable nature, and keep members up-to-date with local events. Organizations are often organized on shared regional associations, rather than based on a national identity.[91] The associations are a small part of Filipino American life. Filipino Americans also have formed close-knit neighborhoods of their own, notably in California and Hawaiʻi.[92][93] A few communities have established "Little Manilas", civic and business districts tailored for the Filipino American community.[54]

Language

Filipino Americans speak Tagalog, Cebuano, Ilocano, Kapampangan, Pangasinan, Visayan languages, Bicolano, and other Philippine languages at home. However, an overwhelming majority of Filipino Americans are fluent in English, since it is one of the official languages in the Philippines and many Filipino American parents urge their children to enhance their English-language skills.

Tagalog is the fifth most-spoken language in the United States, with 1.262 million speakers.[94] Many Filipino American civic organizations and Philippine consulates offer Tagalog language courses. Many of California's public announcements and correspondences are translated into Tagalog due to the large constituency of Filipino Americans in the Golden State.[95] Tagalog is also taught in public schools as a foreign language course, as well as in higher education.[96] Another significant Filipino language is Ilokano, which is taught in school as a foreign language course.[97]

Fluency in Tagalog, Kapampangan, Visayan and in the other languages of the Philippines tend to be lost among second- and third-generation Filipino Americans. This has sometimes created a language barrier between older and younger generations.

Religion

Main article: Religion in the Philippines

Following the discovery of the Philippine Islands on March 16, 1521 by the Portuguese navigator Ferdinand Magellan, the Philippines was evangelized by Spanish friars, eventually becoming a predominantly Catholic nation and "the cradle of Christianity" in East Asia. Filipino American religious beliefs and values are rooted in their Christian heritage. This is caused by the introduction, and subsequent adoption, of Catholicism and Christian values by Filipinos as a result of 333 years of Spanish colonial rule.

In New York, the first-ever Church for Filipinos, San Lorenzo Ruiz Church, is hosted by the city. It is named after the first saint from the Philippines, San Lorenzo Ruiz. This is officially designated as the Church for Filipinos in July 2005, the first in the United States, and the second in the world, after a church in Rome.[98]

There are other religious faiths with smaller numbers of Filipino American adherents, including various Protestant denominations, Islam, Buddhism, Taoism, and Hinduism.

Socioeconomic

Economics

Much of the Filipino-American community is strongly middle class.[99][100][101] The representation of Filipino Americans is high in service-oriented professions such as healthcare. A profile of New York City’s Filipino American population, based on an analysis of 2000 and 1990 U.S. census data reported that Filipino New Yorkers surpassed city residents as a whole in income.[102]

Median Household Income
The American Community — Asians: 2004[27]fig.13
Ethnicity Household Income
per 2004 survey data per 2009 census data
Indians $60,600 $88,538[103]
Filipinos $39,700 $75,146[104]
Chinese $52,000 $69,037[105]
Japanese $48,400 $64,197[106]
Koreans $42,000 $53,025[107]
Total US Population $34,100 $50,221[108]

Among Overseas Filipinos, Filipino Americans are the largest senders of US dollars to the Philippines. In 2005, their combined dollar remittances reached a record-high of almost $6.5 billion dollars. In 2006, Filipino Americans sent more than $8 billion, which represents 57% of the total amount received by the Philippines.[109]

Many Filipino Americans own restaurants, while others are in the medical, dental, and optical fields. Several are in the telemarketing business. Over 125,000 businesses are Filipino-owned, according to the 2002 US Economic Census.[110] These firms employ more than 132,000 people and generate an almost $14.2 billion in revenue. Of these businesses, 38.6% are health care and social assistance oriented and produces 39.3% of the collective Filipino-owned business revenue. California had the most number of these businesses followed by Hawaiʻi, New York, Illinois, New Jersey, Florida, and Texas.[110]

At the point of retirement, a notable percentage of Filipino Americans return back to the Philippines,[111] because of the significance of the dollar in the Philippine economy. Former Philippine president Gloria Macapagal Arroyo has encouraged the Filipino American community business entrepreneurs to invest back home to promote more job-creation in the Philippines. Amongst elderly Filipino Americans the poverty rate (7.7%) is lower than that of the total geriatric population (9.5%), and second lowest amongst Asian Americans.[16]

Education

Filipino Americans have some of the highest educational attainment rates in the United States with 47.9% of all Filipino Americans over the age of 25 having a Bachelor's degree, which correlates with rates observed in other Asian American subgroups.[27]fig.11
 The recent wave of Filipino professionals filling the education, healthcare, and information technology shortages in the United States also accounts for the high educational attainment rates.

Educational Attainment: 2004 (Percent of Population 25 and Older)[27]fig.11
Ethnicity High School Graduation Rate Bachelor's Degree or More
Asian Indians 90.2% 67.9%
Filipinos 90.8% 47.9%
Chinese 80.8% 50.2%
Japanese 93.4% 43.7%
Koreans 90.2% 50.8%
Total US Population 83.9% 27.0%

Due to the strong American influence in the Philippine education system, first generation Filipino immigrants are also at advantage in gaining professional licensure in the United States. According to a study conducted by the American Medical Association, Philippine-trained physicians comprise the second largest group of foreign-trained physicians in the United States (20,861 or 8.7% of all practicing international medical graduates in the U.S.).[113] In addition, Filipino American dentists who have received training in the Philippines comprise the second largest group of foreign-trained dentists in the United States. An article from the Journal of American Dental Association asserts that 11% of all foreign-trained dentists licensed in the U.S. are from the Philippines; India is ranked first with 25.8% of all foreign dentists.[114] The familiar trend of Filipino Americans and Filipino immigrants entering health care jobs is well observed in other allied health professional such as nursing, physical therapy, radiologic technology and medical technology.

Similarities in quality and structure of the nursing curriculum in the Philippines and the United States had led to the migration of thousands of nurses from the Philippines to fill the shortfall of RNs in the United States. Since the 1970s and through the 1980s, the Philippines have been a source of medical professionals for U.S. medical facilities. The Vietnam War and AIDS epidemic of the 70s and 80s, signaled the need of the American health care system for more foreign trained professionals. In articles published in health/medical policy journals, Filipino nurses comprise the largest block of foreign trained nurses working and entering the United States, from 75% of all foreign nurses in the 1980s to 43% in 2000. Still, Philippine-trained nurses make up 52% of all foreigners taking the U.S. nursing licensure exam, well above the Canadian-trained nurses at 12%.

The significant drop in the percentage of Filipino nurses from the 1980s to 2000 is due to the increase in the number of countries recruiting Filipino nurses (European Union, the Middle East, Japan), as well as the increase in number of countries sending nurses to the United States.[115] According to the United States Census Bureau, 60,000 Filipino nationals migrated to the United States every year in the 1990s to take advantage of such professional opportunities. Other Filipino nationals come to the United States for a college or university education, return to the Philippines and end up migrating to the United States to settle.

American schools have also considered the highly-calibrated Filipino teachers and instructors. More US states have been looking to the Philippines to recruit and fill in the need of their respective schools, particularly North Carolina, Kansas, and Virginia.[116]

History

Main article: History of Filipino Americans

Filipinos in what is now the United States were first documented in the 16th century, with small settlements beginning in the 18th century. Mass migration didn't begin until the early 20th century, and for a period the History of the Philippines merged with that of the United States. After the independence of the Philippines from the United States, Filipino Americans continued to grow in population and had events that are associated to them.

Politics

Filipino Americans have traditionally been socially conservative.[117] In the 2004 U.S. Presidential Election Republican president George W. Bush won the Filipino American vote over John Kerry by nearly a two-to-one ratio,[118] which followed strong support in the 2000 election.[119] However, during the 2008 U.S. Presidential Election, Filipino Americans voted majority Democratic, with 58% of the community voting for President Barack Obama and 42% voting for Senator John McCain.[120] The 2008 election marked the first time when a majority of Filipino Americans voted for a Democrat presidential candidate.[121]

At the national level Filipino Americans have increased their visibility over the past few decades. Ben Cayetano, former governor of Hawaii, became the first governor of Filipino descent in the United States. The number of Congress-members of Filipino descent doubled to numbers not reached since 1937, two when the Philippine Islands were represented by non-voting Resident Commissioners, due to the 2000 Senatorial Election. In 2009 there were three Congress-members who claim to have at least one-eighth Filipino ethnicity;[122] the largest number of Filipino Americans in Congress. Since the resignation of Senator John Ensign,[123] the only Filipino American to have been a member of the Senate, in May 2011 there remains only two Representatives who are Filipino American; they are, in order of election to the legislative body:

Community challenges

Cuisine

Main article: Philippine cuisine

The number of Filipino restaurants does not coincide with the size of the population.[124][125] Due to the colonial period American cuisine has influenced Philippine cuisine,[126] yet it has been described by non-Filipinos in a negative light.[127] Even on Oahu where there is a significant Filipino American population,[128] Philippine cuisine is not as noticeable as other Asian cuisine.[129] Within television programing, Philippine cuisine has been portrayed in a negative light, such as on Fear Factor,[130] and positive light, such as on Anthony Bourdain: No Reservations.[131]

In the United States there are many Filipino American chefs who cook in fine dining restaurants and other places of culinary esteem,[132] including Cristeta Comerford who is the executive chef in the White House,[124] many do not serve Philippine cuisine in their restaurants.[132] Multiple reasons are given for the lack of Philippine cuisine in the U.S., including a colonial mentality,[125] lack of a clear identity,[125] a preference for cooking at home,[124] and a further preference of Filipino Americans for cuisines other than their own.[133]

Cultural dissociation

In Hawaii it has been documented that Filipino Americans have a low cultural identification with their heritage,[134] and it has been documented that many disclaim their ethnicity.[135][136] This may be due to the "colonial mentality", or the idea that Western ideals and physical characteristics are viewed more positively than their own.[137] Furthermore, although categorized as Asian Americans, they have not fully embraced as being part of this racial category due to being marginalized or victimized by more culturally manifested mainstream Asian American groups.[138] This has led to a struggle within observed groups of Filipino Americans to be American and something else, possibly due to Filipino Americans lacking their own defined culture.[139] It has been documented that within the Filipino American community itself there is a divide between culturally aware members of the community and those termed as "white-washed", which has created difficulty for those seeking to learn about the culture of the Philippines.[140] For those who disclaim their ethnicity, it removes the positive adjustment to outcomes that are found in those who have a strong, or positive, ethnic identity.[137][141]

Dual citizenship

See also: Multiple citizenship

As a result of the passage by the Philippine Congress of the Citizenship Retention and Re-Acquisition Act of 2003 (Republic Act No. 9225), Filipino Americans became eligible for dual citizenship in both the United States and the Philippines.[111] Overseas suffrage was first employed in the May 2004 elections in which Philippine President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo was reelected to a second term.

By 2005, about 6,000 people became dual citizens of the Philippines and the United States.[142] This act encourages many Filipino Americans to invest in the Philippines, buy land (only Filipino citizens and, with some limitations, former Philippine citizens are allowed to purchase land in the Philippines[143][144]), vote in Philippine elections, retire in the Philippines, and participate in representing the Philippine flag.

Many dual citizens have been recruited to participate in international sports events such as the Olympic Games in Athens 2004, the 23rd Southeast Asian Games in Manila, the 15th Asian Games in 2006 and the Olympic Games in Beijing 2008.

In addition, the Philippine government actively encourages Filipino Americans to visit or return permanently to the Philippines via the "Balikbayan" program and to invest in the country. Philippine consulates facilitate this process in various areas of the United States. These are located in Chicago; Honolulu; Los Angeles; New York; Saipan; and San Francisco while honorary consulates are also available in Atlanta, Fort Lauderdale, Houston, Majuro, Miami and New Orleans.

Immigration

Filipinos remain one of the largest immigrant groups to date with over Forty Thousand being admitted annually since 1979.[145] migrating per annum. About 75% consist of family sponsorship or immediate relatives of American citizens while the remainder is employment-oriented. A majority of this number prefer to live in California, followed by Hawaii, Illinois, New York, New Jersey, Texas, Washington, Florida, Louisiana, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Arkansas, Colorado, Nevada, Alaska, Maryland and Virginia.

Filipinos experience the same long-waiting periods of visa issuance experienced by immigrants of all other nationalities. The United States Citizenship and Immigration Services (USCIS) has a preference system for issuing visas to noncitizen family members of U.S. citizens, with preference based generally on the closeness of familial relation, and some noncitizen relatives of U.S. citizens can spend long periods on immigration waiting lists.[146][147] Petitions for immigrant visas, particularly for siblings of previously naturalized Filipinos that date all the way back to 1984, were granted in 2006.[148][149] Many visa petitions by Filipino Americans for their relatives are on hold or backlogged and as many 1.4 million petitions are affected causing delay to the reunification of Filipino families.

Illegal immigration

See also: Illegal immigration to the United States and Illegal immigration amongst Asian Americans

In 2009, the Department of Homeland Security estimated that there were two hundred seventy thousand (270,000) Filipinos "unauthorized immigrants"; they are the fifth largest nationality of illegal immigrants behind Mexico, El Salvador, Guatemala, and Honduras[150]

"Invisible minority"

Of the ten largest groups of immigrants to the United States, Filipino Americans have the highest rate of assimilation,[151][152] with exception to the cuisine;[153] furthermore, Filipino Americans have been described as the most "Americanized" of the Asian American ethnicities.[154] However, even though Filipino Americans are the second largest ethnicity amongst Asian Americans, and the aforementioned assimilation, many Filipino American community activist have described the ethnicity as "invisible" as circumstances encountered by the ethnicity are virtually unknown to American public,[155] and even within their own ethnicity.[156]

This description has also been used as a description of the ethnicity in the political arena. In the mid 90s it was estimated that there were about one hundred Filipino Americans elected and appointed to public office. This lack of political representation contributes to the perception that Filipino Americans are an "invisible minority".[157][158]

The concept is also used to describe how the ethnicity has blended in, as in the previously referenced assimilation, and adapted to the "White norm" and "not identify with a minorit(ized) identity";[159] this has led to the ethnicity to be considered as "liminal people of color" thus making them "invisible" in institutions of higher education.[160] This assimilation is eased due to several factors such as Filipino immigrants being predominantly Christian, being fluent in English, as well as many being well educated and middle class.[161] The concept is also written as something that occurred in the past, using it to describe how there was not a continuous and stable community from the pre-1965 waves of immigration, and that post-1965 population that came due to the immigration reforms of that time.[162]

The term has also been used to describe Asian Americans as a whole, in multiple fields of study, as well as the concept of Asian Americans being a "model minority".[163][164][165][166]

World War II veteran benefits

See also: Filipino Veterans Fairness Act

During World War II, over 250,000 to over 400,000 Filipinos served with the United States Military.[167][168][169] They served in multiple groups, including but not limited, to the Philippine Scouts, Philippine Commonwealth Army under US Command, and recognized guerrillas during the Japanese Occupation. The U.S. government promised all of the benefits afforded to those serving in the Military of the United States.[170] However, in 1946, the United States Congress passed the Rescission Act of 1946 which stripped Filipino veterans who served during WWII of the benefits as promised. It is estimated that monies due to these veterans for back pay and other benefits may be in excess of One Billion Dollars (1,000,000,000).[169] Of the sixty-six countries allied with the United States during the war, the Philippines is the only country that did not receive military benefits from the United States.[156]

Since the passage of the Rescission Act, many Filipino veterans have traveled to the United States to lobby Congress for the benefits promised to them for their service and sacrifice.[171] In the late 1980s the first successful efforts towards reinstating benefits occurred with the incorporation of Filipino veteran naturalization in the Immigration Act of 1990.[156] Over 30,000 of such veterans had come to live in the United States, with most being American citizens, receiving benefits relating to their service.[172] The phrase "Second Class Veterans" has been used to describe the plight of these Filipino Americans.[156][173][174]

Since 1993, numerous bills have been introduced in Congress to return the benefits taken away from these veterans, and have all died in committee. In the 110th Congress, the "full equity" bills were S. 57[175] in the Senate, and H.R. 760[176] in the House of Representatives. These two bills also did not pass at the end of the 110th US Congress, and have been reintroduced in the 111th US Congress. Similar language to those bills was inserted by the Senate into the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009[177] which was signed into law, providing a one time payment of at least 9,000 USD to eligible non-US Citizens, and 15,000 USD to eligible US Citizens.[178][179] However these payments are only provided to those recognized as being soldiers or recognized guerrilla members by the United States or their surviving spouse. Those listed as eligible by the US Government is smaller than the list of World War II veterans recognized by the Philippines.[180] As of March 2011, forty two (42) percent of all claims under this legislation has been rejected; furthermore, the claimant must waive the right to claim any future lifelong benefits.[181]

Efforts continue to overturn the Rescission Act of 1946 in the 112th, and current, Congress as new legislation has been introduced by Representative Speier.[182] As of December 2011, the bill has eighty six cosponsors,[183] and no action has been taken since being referred to committee.[184][185] There is also a lawsuit to be filed by The Justice for Filipino-American Veterans against the Department of Veterans Affairs.[186] As of February 2011 there are ten thousand surviving Filipino American veterans of World War II in the United States, and a further forty thousand in the Philippines,[187] with some estimates stating there are eighteen thousand or fewer surviving veterans.[188]

Celebrations

Congress has established the Asian Pacific American Heritage Month in May to commemorate Filipino American and Asian American culture in the United States. Upon becoming the largest Asian American group in California, Filipino American History Month was established in October. This is to acknowledge the first landing of Filipinos on October 18, 1587 in Morro Bay, California and is widely celebrated by Fil-Ams in the United States.[189][190]

Major & Regional Celebrations in the United States
Date Name Region
January Winter Sinulog[191] Philadelphia, PA
April PhilFest[192] Tampa, FL
May Asian Pacific American Heritage Month Nationwide, USA
May Asian Heritage Festival[193] New Orleans, LA
May Filipino Fiesta and Parade[194][195] Honolulu, HI
May FAAPI Mother's Day[196] Philadelphia, PA
May Flores de Mayo[197][198][199][200][201] Nationwide, USA
June Philippine Independence Day Parade New York, NY
June Philippine Festival[202][203][204] Washington, D.C.
June Philippine Day Parade[205][206] Passaic, NJ
June Pista Sa Nayon[207][208][209][210] Vallejo, CA
June New York Filipino Film Festival at The ImaginAsian Theatre New York, NY
June Empire State Building commemorates Philippine Independence[211] New York, NY
June Philippine–American Friendship Day Parade[212][213][214][215] Jersey City, NJ
June 12 Fiesta Filipina[216][217][218][219] San Francisco, CA
June 12 Philippine Independence Day Nationwide, USA
June 19 Jose Rizal's Birthday[220][221][222][223] Nationwide, USA
June Pagdiriwang[224][225] Seattle, WA
July Fil-Am Friendship Day[226][227] Virginia Beach, VA
July Pista sa Nayon[228][229][230] Seattle, WA
July Philippine Weekend[231][232] Delano, CA
August 15 to 16 Philippine American Exposition[233][234] Los Angeles, CA
August 15 to 16 Annual Philippine Fiesta[235][236] Secaucus, NJ
August Summer Sinulog[237][238] Philadelphia, PA
August Historic Filipinotown Festival[239][240] Los Angeles, CA
August Pistahan Fesitval and Parade[241][242] San Francisco, CA
September 25 Filipino Pride Day[243][244] Jacksonville, FL
September Festival of Philippine Arts and Culture (FPAC)[245] Los Angeles, CA
September AdoboFest[246] Chicago, IL
October Filipino American History Month Nationwide, USA
October Filipino American Arts and Culture Festival (FilAmFest)[247] San Diego, CA
November Chicago Filipino American Film Festival (CFAFF)[248] Chicago, IL
December 16 to 24 Simbang Gabi Christmas Dawn Masses[249] Nationwide, USA
December 25 Pasko Christmas Feast[250] Nationwide, USA

Notable people

Main article: List of Filipino Americans

See also

References

  1. ^ http://factfinder2.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?fpt=table
  2. ^ a b "Background Note: Philippines". Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs. United States Department of State. 3 June 2011. http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2794.htm#relations. Retrieved 8 June 2011. "There are an estimated four million Americans of Philippine ancestry in the United States, and more than 300,000 American citizens in the Philippines." 
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  5. ^ "Illinois". U.S. Census Bureau. United States Department of Commerce. 2007. http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/IPTable?_bm=y&-context=ip&-reg=ACS_2007_3YR_G00_S0201:038;ACS_2007_3YR_G00_S0201PR:038;ACS_2007_3YR_G00_S0201T:038;ACS_2007_3YR_G00_S0201TPR:038;&-qr_name=ACS_2007_3YR_G00_S0201&-qr_name=ACS_2007_3YR_G00_S0201PR&-qr_name=ACS_2007_3YR_G00_S0201T&-qr_name=ACS_2007_3YR_G00_S0201TPR&-ds_name=ACS_2007_3YR_G00_&-tree_id=3307&-redoLog=true&-_caller=geoselect&-geo_id=04000US17&-search_results=01000US&-format=&-_lang=en. Retrieved 26 June 2011. 
  6. ^ "New Jersey". U.S. Census Bureau. United States Department of Commerce. 2007. http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/IPTable?_bm=y&-context=ip&-reg=ACS_2007_3YR_G00_S0201:038;ACS_2007_3YR_G00_S0201PR:038;ACS_2007_3YR_G00_S0201T:038;ACS_2007_3YR_G00_S0201TPR:038;&-qr_name=ACS_2007_3YR_G00_S0201&-qr_name=ACS_2007_3YR_G00_S0201PR&-qr_name=ACS_2007_3YR_G00_S0201T&-qr_name=ACS_2007_3YR_G00_S0201TPR&-ds_name=ACS_2007_3YR_G00_&-tree_id=3307&-redoLog=true&-_caller=geoselect&-geo_id=04000US34&-search_results=01000US&-format=&-_lang=en. Retrieved 26 June 2011. 
  7. ^ "New York". U.S. Census Bureau. United States Department of Commerce. 2007. http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/IPTable?_bm=y&-context=ip&-reg=ACS_2007_3YR_G00_S0201:038;ACS_2007_3YR_G00_S0201PR:038;ACS_2007_3YR_G00_S0201T:038;ACS_2007_3YR_G00_S0201TPR:038;&-qr_name=ACS_2007_3YR_G00_S0201&-qr_name=ACS_2007_3YR_G00_S0201PR&-qr_name=ACS_2007_3YR_G00_S0201T&-qr_name=ACS_2007_3YR_G00_S0201TPR&-ds_name=ACS_2007_3YR_G00_&-tree_id=3307&-redoLog=true&-_caller=geoselect&-geo_id=04000US36&-search_results=01000US&-format=&-_lang=en. Retrieved 26 June 2011. 
  8. ^ "Washington". U.S. Census Bureau. United States Department of Commerce. 2007. http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/IPTable?_bm=y&-context=ip&-reg=ACS_2007_3YR_G00_S0201:038;ACS_2007_3YR_G00_S0201PR:038;ACS_2007_3YR_G00_S0201T:038;ACS_2007_3YR_G00_S0201TPR:038;&-qr_name=ACS_2007_3YR_G00_S0201&-qr_name=ACS_2007_3YR_G00_S0201PR&-qr_name=ACS_2007_3YR_G00_S0201T&-qr_name=ACS_2007_3YR_G00_S0201TPR&-ds_name=ACS_2007_3YR_G00_&-tree_id=3307&-redoLog=true&-_caller=geoselect&-geo_id=04000US53&-search_results=01000US&-format=&-_lang=en. Retrieved 26 June 2011. 
  9. ^ "Texas". U.S. Census Bureau. United States Department of Commerce. 2007. http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/IPTable?_bm=y&-context=ip&-reg=ACS_2007_3YR_G00_S0201:038;ACS_2007_3YR_G00_S0201PR:038;ACS_2007_3YR_G00_S0201T:038;ACS_2007_3YR_G00_S0201TPR:038;&-qr_name=ACS_2007_3YR_G00_S0201&-qr_name=ACS_2007_3YR_G00_S0201PR&-qr_name=ACS_2007_3YR_G00_S0201T&-qr_name=ACS_2007_3YR_G00_S0201TPR&-ds_name=ACS_2007_3YR_G00_&-tree_id=3307&-redoLog=true&-_caller=geoselect&-geo_id=04000US48&-search_results=01000US&-format=&-_lang=en. Retrieved 26 June 2011. 
  10. ^ "Florida". U.S. Census Bureau. United States Department of Commerce. 2007. http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/IPTable?_bm=y&-context=ip&-reg=ACS_2007_3YR_G00_S0201:038;ACS_2007_3YR_G00_S0201PR:038;ACS_2007_3YR_G00_S0201T:038;ACS_2007_3YR_G00_S0201TPR:038;&-qr_name=ACS_2007_3YR_G00_S0201&-qr_name=ACS_2007_3YR_G00_S0201PR&-qr_name=ACS_2007_3YR_G00_S0201T&-qr_name=ACS_2007_3YR_G00_S0201TPR&-ds_name=ACS_2007_3YR_G00_&-tree_id=3307&-redoLog=true&-_caller=geoselect&-geo_id=04000US12&-search_results=01000US&-format=&-_lang=en. Retrieved 26 June 2011. 
  11. ^ "Filipino Population Density, U.S. Census 2000". Research Center. Church of Nazarene. 2004-11-04. http://www.nazarene.org/files/docs/USCensusFilipino.pdf. Retrieved 2009-05-15. 
  12. ^ a b Melen McBride, RN, PhD. "HEALTH AND HEALTH CARE OF FILIPINO AMERICAN ELDERS". Stanford University School of Medicine. Stanford University. http://www.stanford.edu/group/ethnoger/filipino.html. Retrieved 8 June 2011. 
  13. ^ "Fil-Am: abbreviation Filipino American.", allwords.com, Date accessed: 29 April 2011
  14. ^ Marina Claudio-Perez (October 1998). "Filipino Americans". The California State Library. State of California. http://www.library.ca.gov/services/docs/filipino.pdf. Retrieved 30 April 2011. "Filipino Americans are often shortened into Pinoy. Some Filipinos believe that the term Pinoy was coined by the early Filipinos who came to the United States to distinguish themselves from Filipinos living in the Philippines. Others are saying it implies not just being Filipino by birth but also connotes being a Filipino in thought, dead and spirit." 
  15. ^ http://factfinder2.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?fpt=table
  16. ^ a b "Demographics". School of Medicine. Stanford University. http://geriatrics.stanford.edu/ethnomed/filipino/introduction/. Retrieved 27 April 2011. 
  17. ^ a b "Introduction, Filipino Settlements in the United States". Filipino American Lives. Temple University Press. 1995-03. http://www.temple.edu/tempress/chapters_1100/1157_ch1.pdf. Retrieved 2009-04-19. 
  18. ^ "UAA psychology professor E.J. David explores Filipino-American 'colonial mentality' in his new book". Green & Gold News. University of Alaska Anchorage. 2 March 2011. http://greenandgold.uaa.alaska.edu/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=6883:uaa-psychology-professor-ej-david-explores-filipino-american-colonial-mentality-in-his-new-book&Itemid=125. Retrieved 8 June 2011. "Filipinos in America also number over 3 million, making them the second largest Asian American Pacific Islander (AAPI) ethnic group in the country, and they are projected to be the largest AAPI groups when the results of the 2010 census come out." 
  19. ^ "Curriculum Guide". Smithsonian Asian Pacific American Program. Smithsonian Institute. December 2006. http://www.filam.si.edu/curriculum/FilAm_Project_Guide.pdf. Retrieved 8 June 2011. 
  20. ^ Tiongson, Antonio T.; Edgardo Valencia Gutierrez, Ricardo Valencia Gutierrez (2006). Positively no Filipinos allowed: building communities and discourse. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Temple University Press. p. 173. ISBN 9781592131228. http://books.google.com/books?id=y1YN11so7k4C&lpg=PA173&dq=%22Filipino%20American%22%20second%20largest%20%22Asian%20American%22&pg=PA173#v=onepage&q&f=false. Retrieved 8 June 2011. 
  21. ^ Nadal, Kevin L.; Pituc, Stephanie T.; Marc P. Johnston, Theresa Esparrago (2010). "Overcoming the Model Minority Myth: Experiences of Filipino American Graduate Students". Journal of College Student Development (The Johns Hopkins University Press) 51 (6): 694–7006. doi:10.1353/csd.2010.0023. http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_college_student_development/v051/51.6.nadal.html. Retrieved 8 June 2011. "Filipino Americans are the second largest Asian American/Pacific Islander population in the United States." 
  22. ^ Javier, Joyce R.; Chamberlain, Lisa J.; Kahealani K. Rivera, Sarah E. Gonzalez, Fernando S. Mendoza, Lynne C. Huffman (2010). "Lessons Learned From a Community-Academic Partnership Addressing Adolescent Pregnancy Prevention in Filipino American Families". Progress in Community Health Partnerships: Research, Education, and Action (The Johns Hopkins University Press) 4 (4): 305–313. doi:10.1353/cpr.2010.0023. http://mtw160-150.ippl.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/progress_in_community_health_partnerships_research_education_and_action/v004/4.4.javier.pdf. Retrieved 8 June 2011. "Filipinos are the second largest API subpopulation in the United States but are underrepresented in medical research." 
  23. ^ Nadal, Kevin (2011). Filipino American Psychology: A Handbook of Theory, Research, and Clinical Practice. Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley and Sons. p. x. ISBN 9780470951361. http://books.google.com/books?id=PrO-YkFy4MkC&lpg=PR9&dq=%22second%20largest%22%20%22Filipino%20American%22%20%22Asian%20American%22&pg=PR10#v=onepage&q&f=false. Retrieved 8 June 2011. "Filipino Americans are now the second largest Asian American group in the United States and may become the majority in 2010." 
  24. ^ "Asian/Pacific American Heritage Month: May 2007" (Press release). U.S. Census Bureau. March 1, 2007. http://www.census.gov/Press-Release/www/releases/archives/facts_for_features_special_editions/009714.html. Retrieved 2007-09-03.  (based on census 2000 data)
  25. ^ The U.S. Census Bureau 2007 American Community Survey counted 3,053,179 Filipinos; 2,445,126 native and naturalized citizens, 608,053 of whom were not U.S. citizens: "Selected Population Profile in the United States: Filipino alone or in any combination". United States Census Bureau. http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/IPTable?_bm=y&-context=ip&-reg=ACS_2007_1YR_G00_S0201:038;ACS_2007_1YR_G00_S0201PR:038;ACS_2007_1YR_G00_S0201T:038;ACS_2007_1YR_G00_S0201TPR:038&-qr_name=ACS_2007_1YR_G00_S0201&-qr_name=ACS_2007_1YR_G00_S0201PR&-qr_name=ACS_2007_1YR_G00_S0201T&-qr_name=ACS_2007_1YR_G00_S0201TPR&-ds_name=ACS_2007_1YR_G00_&-tree_id=306&-redoLog=false&-geo_id=01000US&-geo_id=NBSP&-search_results=16000US3651000&-format=&-_lang=en. Retrieved 2009-02-01. 
  26. ^ a b "We the People: Asians in the United States". U.S. Census Bureau. United States Department of Commerce. December 2004. http://www.census.gov/prod/2004pubs/censr-17.pdf. Retrieved 10 March 2011. 
  27. ^ a b c d The American Community-Asians: 2004. U.S. Census Bureau. February 2007. http://www.census.gov/prod/2007pubs/acs-05.pdf. Retrieved 2007-09-05  — part of the American Community Survey (ACS) report series based on responses to the 2004 ACS question on race, which asked all respondents to report one or more races.[112]
  28. ^ Root, Maria P. P. (1997). Filipino Americans: transformation and identity. Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE. pp. 352. ISBN 9780761905790. http://books.google.com/books?id=7jK0RrwCHqQC&lpg=PA86&dq=Filipino%20Americans%20intermarry%20Chinese&pg=PA80#v=onepage&q&f=false. Retrieved 27 April 2011. 
  29. ^ "Interracial Dating & Marriage". asian-nation.org. http://www.asian-nation.org/interracial.shtml. Retrieved 2007-08-30. 
  30. ^ "Multiracial / Hapa Asian Americans". asian-nation.org. http://www.asian-nation.org/multiracial.shtml. Retrieved 2007-08-30. 
  31. ^ Mercene, Floro L. (2007). Manila Men in the New World: Filipino Migration to Mexico and the Americas from the Sixteenth Century. The University of the Philippines Press. pp. 161. ISBN 9715425291. http://books.google.com/?id=OSqhZphG_gQC&pg=PA38. Retrieved July 1, 2009. 
  32. ^ a b c d Rodel Rodis (25 October 2006). "A century of Filipinos in America". Inquirer. http://globalnation.inquirer.net/mindfeeds/mindfeeds/view/20061025-28651/A_century_of_Filipinos_in_America. Retrieved 4 May 2011. 
  33. ^ Laura Westbrook. "Mabuhay Pilipino! (Long Life!): Filipino Culture in Southeast Louisiana". Louisiana Division of the Arts. Department of Culture, Recreation & Tourism. http://www.louisianafolklife.org/LT/Articles_Essays/pilipino1.html. Retrieved 4 May 2011. "The children who lived on the mainland would be released from school during harvest times to help the family during their busiest season, and those who recall Manila Village and other such communities recall it as an intensely exciting time. On September 9, 1965, Hurricane Betsy's 18-foot swells brought an end to the last of the Filipino stilt villages. The men who lived in the stilt villages during the fishing season joined their families on the mainland and assimilated into other professions." 
  34. ^ Montero de Pedro, Jose; Marques de Casa Mena (2000). The Spanish in New Orleans and Louisiana. Gretna, Louisiana: Pelican Publishing. p. 177. ISBN 9781565546851. http://books.google.com/books?id=KPnbDe8QvHMC&lpg=PA177&dq=%22Manila%20Village%22%201965%20Louisiana&pg=PA177#v=onepage&q&f=false. Retrieved 4 May 2011. "The most important of these villages, Manila Village, which came to have a population of more than three hundred Filipinos, together with some Mexicans, Chinese and Spaniards, finally disappeared in 1965, destroyed by the dashing waves of Hurricane Betsy." 
  35. ^ "Labor Migration in Hawaii". UH Office of Multicultural Student Services. University of Hawaii. http://opmanong.ssc.hawaii.edu/filipino/labor.html. Retrieved 2009-05-11. 
  36. ^ "Interpretation 308.1 United states non citizen nationality .". Service Law books. United States Citizenship and Immigration Services. http://www.uscis.gov/ilink/docView/SLB/HTML/SLB/0-0-0-1/0-0-0-45104/0-0-0-45717.html#0-0-0-23507. Retrieved 25 March 2011. 
  37. ^ M. Licudine v. D. Winter, JR 1086, p. 5 (U.S. District Court for D.C. 2008) (““[f]rom the time the United States obtained dominion over the Philippines in 1899 until it granted independence to the islands in 1946, [the United States] Congress classified natives of the Philippines as Philippine citizens, as non-citizen United States nationals, and as aliens, but never as United States citizens.””).
  38. ^ Keely, Charles (1973). "Philippine Migration: Internal Movements and Emigration to the United States". International Migration Review (Wiley Blackwell) 7 (2): 177–187. doi:10.2307/3002427. JSTOR 3002427. 
  39. ^ Holmquist, June D. (2003). They Chose Minnesota: A Survey Of The States Ethnic Groups. Saint Paul, Minnesota: Minnesota Historical Society Press. p. 546. ISBN 9780873512312. http://books.google.com/books?id=QWBhzg7AQPwC&lpg=PA546&dq=migration%20philippines%20%22united%20states%20nationals%22&pg=PA546#v=onepage&q=nationals&f=false. Retrieved 25 March 2011. 
  40. ^ Ancheta, Angelo N. (2006). Race, rights, and the Asian American experience. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press. p. 26. ISBN 9780813539027. http://books.google.com/books?id=MPkK9kXQY4oC&lpg=PA26&dq=migration%20philippines%20%22united%20states%20nationals%22&pg=PA26#v=onepage&q=migration%20philippines%20%22united%20states%20nationals%22&f=false. Retrieved 25 March 2011. 
  41. ^ "Timeline for Filipino Immigration to Hawaii". Hawaii for Visitors. Kathie Fry. http://www.hawaiiforvisitors.com/about/filipino-immigration.htm. Retrieved 2009-04-05. 
  42. ^ "Filipino Immigration to America". Bong Tumanut. 1997-08-29. Archived from the original on 2002-07-07. http://web.archive.org/web/20020707122228/http://www.geocities.com/tokyo/towers/3131/usimmig.htm. Retrieved 2009-04-05. 
  43. ^ "Filipino Migrant Works in California". The Office of Multicultural Student Services. University of Hawaii. http://opmanong.ssc.hawaii.edu/filipino/cali.html. Retrieved 25 March 2011. 
  44. ^ Laguerre, Michel S. (2000). The global ethnopolis: Chinatown, Japantown, and Manilatown in American society. New York, New York: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 79. ISBN 9780312226121. http://books.google.com/books?id=35ARG3hNCR0C&lpg=PA78&dq=%22Little%20Manilas%22&pg=PA79#v=onepage&q&f=false. Retrieved 24 April 2011. 
  45. ^ Smith, Carter, ed (2004). Student Almanac of Asian American History: From the exclusion era to today, 1925-present. Westport Connecticut: Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 18. ISBN 9780313326042. http://books.google.com/books?id=oPtFwpAKcBEC&lpg=PA17&dq=Fiancees%20Act%20Filipino&pg=PA18#v=onepage&q=Fiancees%20Act%20Filipino&f=false. Retrieved 11 June 2011. 
  46. ^ a b Sisson, Richard; Christian K. Zacher, Andrew Robert Lee Cayton (2007). The American Midwest: an interpretive encyclopedia. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press. pp. 1890. ISBN 9780253348869. http://books.google.com/books?id=n3Xn7jMx1RYC&lpg=PA257&dq=Fiancees%20Act%20Filipino&pg=PA257#v=onepage&q&f=false. Retrieved 10 June 2011. 
  47. ^ Chen, Edith Wen-Chu; Glenn Omatsu, Emily Porcincula Lawsin, Joseph A. Galura (2006). Teaching about Asian Pacific Americans: effective activities, strategies, and assignments for classrooms and communities. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 316. ISBN 9780742553385. http://books.google.com/books?id=JqLOnyU081kC&lpg=PA29&dq=Fiancees%20Act%20Filipino%20Regiment&pg=PA29#v=onepage&q&f=false. Retrieved 11 June 2011. 
  48. ^ Alex S. Fabros. "California's Filipino Infantry". The California State Military Museum. California State Military Department. http://www.militarymuseum.org/Filipino.html. Retrieved 10 May 2011. 
  49. ^ Baldoz, Rick (2011). The Third Asiatic Invasion: Migration and Empire in Filipino America, 1898-1946. New York: NYU Press. p. 228. ISBN 9780814791097. http://books.google.com/books?id=qtn31sdI4j8C&lpg=PA228&dq=Fiancees%20Act%20Filipino&pg=PA228#v=onepage&q&f=false. Retrieved 11 June 2011. 
  50. ^ Daniels, Roger (2010). Immigration and the legacy of Harry S. Truman. Kirksville, Missouri: Truman State University Press. p. 103. ISBN 9781931112994. http://books.google.com/books?id=z0ZCxForm1cC&lpg=PA104&dq=Filipinos%20Chicago&pg=PA103#v=onepage&q=Filipinos%20Chicago&f=false. Retrieved 30 December 2011. 
  51. ^ Habal, Estella (2007). San Francisco's International Hotel: mobilizing the Filipino American. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. pp. 227. ISBN 9781592134458. http://books.google.com/books?id=RWhp5kLHkbUC&lpg=PA26&dq=filipino%20american%20communities%20navy%20bases&pg=PA25#v=onepage&q&f=false. Retrieved 10 March 2011. 
  52. ^ Bonus, Rick (2000). Locating Filipino Americans: ethnicity and the cultural politics of space. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. p. 42. ISBN 9781566397797. http://books.google.com/books?id=Kub5edzzP50C&lpg=PA42&dq=%22Filipino%20Naturalization%20Act%22%201946&pg=PA42#v=onepage&q&f=false. Retrieved 27 April 2011. 
  53. ^ "20th Century - Post WWII". Asian American Studies. Dartmouth College. http://www.dartmouth.edu/~hist32/History/20th%20Century%20-%20post%20WWII.htm. Retrieved 27 April 2011. "Filipino Naturalization Act grants US citizenship to filipinos who had arrived before March 24, 1943." 
  54. ^ a b Sterngass, Jon (2006). Filipino Americans. New York, New York: Infobase Publishing. pp. 144. ISBN 9780791087916. http://books.google.com/books?id=-gjvUvVY-ngC&lpg=PA71&dq=%22Little%20Manilas%22&pg=PA69#v=onepage&q&f=false. Retrieved 24 April 2011. 
  55. ^ Perry, Elisabeth Israels; Karen Manners Smith (2006). The Gilded Age and Progressive Era: a student companion. New York, New York: Oxford University Press US. p. 151. ISBN 9780195156706. http://books.google.com/books?id=pDhUXlMt6pkC&lpg=PA150&dq=%22Little%20Manilas%22&pg=PA151#v=onepage&q&f=false. Retrieved 27 April 2011. "They established Filipino-American communites called Little Manilas-after their country's capital-in a number of American cities." 
  56. ^ Laguerre, Michel S. (2000). The global ethnopolis: Chinatown, Japantown, and Manilatown in American society. New York, New York: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 199. ISBN 9780312226121. http://books.google.com/books?id=35ARG3hNCR0C&lpg=PA78&dq=%22Little%20Manilas%22&pg=PA84#v=onepage&q&f=false. Retrieved 27 April 2011. 
  57. ^ Min, Pyong Gap (2006). Asian Americans: contemporary trends and issues. Pine Forge Press. p. 39. ISBN 9781412905565. http://books.google.com/books?id=5PSYZMs8TzEC&lpg=PA38&dq=Filipinos%20settle%20more%20dispersed&pg=PA39#v=onepage&q&f=false. Retrieved 27 April 2011. 
  58. ^ Min, Pyong Gap (2006). Asian Americans: contemporary trends and issues. Pine Forge Press. pp. 358. ISBN 9781412905565. http://books.google.com/books?id=5PSYZMs8TzEC&lpg=PA38&dq=Filipinos%20settle%20more%20dispersed&pg=PA33#v=onepage&q&f=false. Retrieved 27 April 2011. "Although less than half of Asian Americans as a while were concentrated in the West in 2000, some Asian groups had much higher levels of concentration there. For example, 73% of Japanese Americans and 68% of Filipino Americans lived in the West." 
  59. ^ Gaw, Albert (1993). Culture, ethnicity, and mental illness. Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Press. p. 381. ISBN 9780880483599. http://books.google.com/books?id=K8RFMTng47kC&lpg=PA380&dq=80%2C000%20annual%20immigration%20philippines%20United%20States&pg=PA381#v=onepage&q&f=false. Retrieved 27 April 2011. 
  60. ^ Rene Villaroman (July 10, 2007). LA Consul General Throws Ceremonial First Pitch at Dodgers-Padres Pre-Game Event. Asian Journal Online. http://www.asianjournal.com/?c=124&a=21464. Retrieved 2009-07-13 
     See also: About the Consulate General. The Philippine Consulate General of Los Angeles, California. http://www.pcgenla.org/AboutUscon.htm. Retrieved 2008-06-02 
  61. ^ Rosario, Claudine del; Gonzalez III, Joaquin L. (2006). "Apathy to Activism through Filipino American Churches". Asia Pacific: Perspectives (University of San Francisco) VI (1): 21–37. http://usf.usfca.edu/pac_rim/new/research/perspectives/app_v6n1_delrosario_gonzalez.pdf. Retrieved 27 April 2011. 
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