Eco-terrorism usually refers to acts of violence or sabotage committed in support of ecological, environmental, or animal rights causes against persons or their property.[1][2]
Eco-terrorism is defined by the Federal Bureau of Investigation as "the use or threatened use of violence of a criminal nature against people or property by an environmentally oriented, subnational group for environmental-political reasons, or aimed at an audience beyond the target, often of a symbolic nature."[3] The FBI has credited to eco-terrorism 300 million dollars in property damage from 2003 and 2008, and a majority of states within the USA have introduced laws aimed at these activities.[4]
Critics of this use of the term argue that it has been defined in order to vilify activists,[5][6] and that the term would be more properly employed to describe the environmentally damaging activities of corporations.[6][7][8]
Contents |
Eco-terrorism is a form of radical environmentalism that arose out of the same school of thought that brought about deep ecology, ecofeminism, social ecology, and bioregionalism.[9] Eco-terrorism is a controversial term.[10]
Eco-terrorism is closely related to civil disobedience and sabotage in the name of the environment, and there is a debate on where to draw the lines between the three.[9] Some of those who are labeled as eco-terrorists do not perpetrate violence against humans, but only against property. This has led to a debate that touches on whether or not to classify these actions as "terrorist". In the United States, the FBI’s definition includes acts of violence against property, which makes most acts of sabotage fall in the realm of domestic terrorism, even if they are not designed to induce terror, which is the dictionary definition of terrorism.
Sabotage involves destroying, or threatening to destroy, property, and in this case is also known as monkeywrenching[9] or ecotage.[11] Many acts of sabotage involve the damage of equipment and unmanned facilities using arson.
There are a wide variety of tactics that have been used by eco-terrorists and groups associated with eco-terrorism. Examples include:
Organizations accused of eco-terrorism are generally grassroots organizations, do not have a hierarchal structure, and typically favor direct action approaches to their goals.[12]
Dr. Stefan Leader characterizes these groups, namely ELF, with having "leaderless resistance" which he describes as “a technique by which terrorist groups can carry out violent acts while reducing the risk of infiltration by law enforcement elements. The basic principal [sic] of leaderless resistance is that there is no centralized authority or chain-of-command.”[13] Essentially this consists of independent cells which operate autonomously, sharing goals, but having no central leaders or formal organizational structure. Those who wish to join are typically encouraged to start their own cell, rather than seek out other members and jeopardize their secrecy.[14]
Organizations that have been accused of eco-terrorism in the United States include the Animal Liberation Front (ALF),[15] the Earth Liberation Front (ELF),[15] Greenpeace, the Sea Shepherd Conservation Society, Earth First!.[9] The Coalition to Save the Preserves.[16] and the Hardesty Avengers.[17] In 2010 The FBI were criticized in US Justice Department reports for unjustified surveillance (and placement on the Terrorism Watchlist) between 2001 and 2006 of members of Animal Rights groups such as Greenpeace and PETA.[18]
In a 2002 testimony to the US Congress, an FBI official mentioned the actions of Sea Shepherd Conservation Society in the context of eco-terrorism.[19] The Sea Shepherd Conservation Society intervenes against whaling, seal hunting, and fishing operations with direct action tactics. In 1986, the group caused nearly 1.8 million dollars worth of damage to equipment used by whalers in Iceland.[9] In 1992, they attacked two Japanese ships that were drift-net fishing for squid by cutting their nets and throwing bombs on board the boats.[12]
Inspired by Edward Abbey, Earth First! began in 1980. Although the group has been credited with becoming more mainstream, its use of tree spiking during campaigns has been associated with the origins of eco-terrorism.[9][20] In 2002, a jury found that FBI agents and Oakland police officers violated constitutional rights to free speech and protection from unlawful searches of two Earth First! organizers accused of a 1990 car bombing. Authorities alleged that the bomb was in the car of one of the accused when it accidentally detonated. The pair sued investigators, alleging false arrest, illegal search, slanderous statements and conspiracy.[21]
The Earth Liberation Front, founded in 1992, joined with the Animal Liberation Front, which had its beginnings in England in 1979.[9] They have been connected primarily with arson but claim that they work to harm neither human nor animal.[9] A recent example of arson that was attributed to the ELF was in March 2008 concerning the "torching of luxury homes in the swank Seattle suburb of Woodinville".[22] A banner was left at the scene that claimed the housing development was not green as advertised, and was signed ELF.[23] In September 2009 the destruction of two radio towers in Seattle was also attributed to the ELF.[23] The FBI in 2001 named the ELF as "one of the most active extremist elements in the United States", and a "terrorist threat",.[15] The Coalition to Save the Preserves was mentioned in FBI testimony as a group that was responsible for a series of arsons in Arizona. Using similar tactics to the ELF, they have caused more than $5 million in damages.[16]
Media reports have tied Theodore Kaczynski, also known as the Unabomber, to environmental activists, and say that the 23 injuries and three deaths through letter-bombs were the acts of an independent eco-terrorist. Among those making such accusations were ABC, The New York Times, Time magazine, and USA Today.[24]
A number of "local" organizations have also been indicted under US Federal laws related to eco-terrorism. These include, among others, the group "Stop Huntingdon Animal Cruelty."[25]
Another example is the Hardesty Avengers who spiked trees in the Hardesty Mountains in Willamette National Forest in 1984.[17]
In January 2010, Al Jazeera aired an audiotape from al-Qaeda founder Osama bin Laden, in which he criticizes the United States for not signing the Kyoto Protocol and accuses it of causing global warming.[27][28][29]
The thought behind eco-terrorism rises from the radical environmentalism movement, which gained popularity during the 1960s.[9] Ideas that arose from radical environmentalism are “based on the belief that capitalism, patriarchal society, and the Judeo-Christian tradition were responsible for the despoliation of nature”.[9] Radical environmentalism is also characterized by the belief that human society is responsible for the depletion of the environment and, if current society is let unchecked, will lead to the ultimate complete degradation of the environment.[30]
Like deep ecologists, eco-terrorists subscribe to the idea of biocentrism, which is described as “a belief that human beings are just an ordinary member of the biological community” and that all living things should have rights and deserve protection under the law.[12] Some eco-terrorists are motivated by other aspects of deep ecology, like the goal to return the environment to its "natural", i.e., pre-industrial, state.[13]
Despite these generalizations, it should be noted that eco-terrorism encompasses a broad array of organizations, goals, and philosophies.
Spiking trees became a federal offense in the United States when it was added to the Drug Act in 1988.[31]
Under the Animal Enterprise Protection Act of 1992 it became a federal crime to “cause more than $10,000 in damage while engaged in “physical disruption to the functioning of an animal enterprise by intentionally stealing, damaging, or causing the loss of any property…used by the animal enterprise.”[9] In 2006, this was updated and renamed the Animal Enterprise Terrorism Act by the 109th congress.[32] The updated act included causing personal harm and the losses incurred on “secondary targets” as well as adding to the penalties for these crimes.[33]
In 2003, a conservative Texas legislative reform group, the American Legislative Exchange Council (ALEC), proposed the "Animal and Ecological Terrorism Act" which defined an "animal rights or ecological terrorist organization" as "two or more persons organized for the purpose of supporting any politically motivated activity intended to obstruct or deter any person from participating in an activity involving animals or an activity involving natural resources."[34] The legislation was not enacted.
The FBI has stated that “since 2005…investigations have resulted in indictments against 30 individuals.” In 2006, an FBI case labeled ‘Operation Backfire’ brought charges of domestic terrorism to eleven people associated with the ELF and ALF. “The indictment includes charges related to arson, conspiracy, use of destructive devices, and destruction of an energy facility.”[35]
However, the Bush Justice Department, including the FBI, was recently criticized for improper investigations and prosecutions of left-leaning U.S. protest groups such as Greenpeace. The Washington Post reports that the "FBI improperly opened and extended investigations of some U.S. activist groups and put members of an environmental advocacy organization on a terrorist watch list, even though they were planning nonviolent civil disobedience, the Justice Department said Monday."[36]
A report, filed by Inspector General Glenn A. Fine, found the FBI to be not guilty of the most serious charge—according to the Post, that "agents targeted domestic groups based on their exercise of First Amendment rights." The investigation was conducted in response to allegations that the FBI had targeted groups on such grounds during the Bush Administration. The Post has more:
"But the report cited what it called other "troubling" FBI practices in its monitoring of domestic groups in the years between the Sept. 11, 2001, terrorist attacks and 2006. In some cases, Fine said, agents began investigations of people affiliated with activist groups for "factually weak" reasons and "without adequate basis" and improperly kept information about activist groups in its files. Among the groups monitored were the Thomas Merton Center, a Pittsburgh peace group; People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals; and Greenpeace USA. Activists affiliated with Greenpeace were improperly put on a terrorist watch list, the report said.[36]
In 2008, Eric McDavid was convicted of plotting to attack several targets including a fish hatchery, a dam, power stations, and cell phone towers. An undercover FBI agent exposed the plan. In addition to McDavid, two others were also convicted for aiding with the plot.[37] On March 6, 2008 Eric McDavid was sentenced to 20 years in prison for “conspiracy to damage or destroy property by fire and explosive.”[38] United States Attorney McGregor Scott stated: “Today’s severe punishment of nearly 20 years in federal prison should serve as a cautionary tale to those who would conspire to commit life-threatening acts in the name of their extremist views.”[38]