Despot (court title)

Despot (from Greek: δεσπότης, despotēs, "lord, master"; in Bulgarian and Serbian: деспот, despot), was a senior Byzantine court title that was bestowed on the sons or sons-in-law of reigning emperors, and initially denoted the heir-apparent. From Byzantium it spread throughout the late medieval Balkans, and was also granted in the states under Byzantine influence, such as the Latin Empire, Bulgaria, Serbia, and the Empire of Trebizond. It gave rise to several principalities termed "despotates" which were ruled either as independent states or as appanages by princes bearing the title of despot. The most prominent of these were Epirus, the Morea and Serbia. In English, the feminine form of the title is despotess (Greek δεσπότισσα, despotissa; Serbian and Bulgarian деспотица, despotitsa), but the transliterated Greek form despoina (δέσποινα) is also commonly used.

The term must not be confused with its modern usage, which refers to despotism, a form of government in which a single entity rules with absolute power. The semantic shift undergone by the term is mirrored by tyrant, an ancient Greek word that originally bore no negative connotation, and the Latin dictator.

Origin and distribution

The original Greek term δεσπότης (despotēs) meant simply "lord" and was synonymous with κύριος (kyrios). As the Greek equivalent to the Latin dominus, despotēs was initially used as a form of address indicating respect.^[1] As such it was applied to any person of rank, but in a more specific sense to God, bishops and the patriarchs, and primarily the Roman and Byzantine Emperors, occasionally used in formal settings, for example on coins (since Leo III the Isaurian) or formal documents.^[1][2]

Although it was used for high-ranking nobles from the early 12th century, the title of despot began being used as a specific court title by Manuel I Komnenos, who conferred it in 1163 to the future King Béla III of Hungary, the Emperor's son-in-law and, until the birth of Alexios II in 1169, heir-apparent.^[2][3] According to historian Gyula Moravcsik this title was a simple translation of Béla's Hungarian title úr, but other historians believe it comes from the old Roman title dominus.

The title of despot was the highest title in the Byzantine Empire during the last two centuries of its existence, being awarded to the younger sons of emperors (the eldest sons were usually crowned as co-emperors, symbasileis) as well as to the emperor's sons-in-law (gambroi). The title entailed extensive honours and privileges, including the control of large estates – the domains of Michael VIII's brother John Palaiologos included the islands of Lesbos and Rhodes – to finance their extensive households. Like the junior titles of sebastokrator and Caesar however, the title of despot was strictly a courtly dignity, without specific military or administrative functions or powers.^[4]

Despotates

From the mid-14th century on, various territories were given to imperial princes with the rank of despot to rule as semi-autonomous appanages, some of which have become widely known as "despotates" (sing. δεσποτάτον in Greek); chiefly the Despotate of Epirus and the Despotate of the Morea. It is important to stress that the term "despotate" is technically inaccurate: the title of despot, like every other Byzantine dignity, was not hereditary nor intrinsic to a specific territory. Even in the so-called "despotates", a son of a despot could not hold the title unless it was conferred anew by the emperor.^[2][5] In normal Byzantine usage, a clear distinction was drawn between the personal dignity of despot and any other offices or attributes of its holder. Thus John II Orsini is qualified as "the ruler of Acarnania, the despot John" rather than "the despot of Acarnania" by John VI Kantakouzenos.^[6] Nevertheless, the close association of title and territory began already from the late 13th century and became widespread from the mid-14th century, as a steady succession of despots began to rule over the same territory.^[2][7]

The use of the title spread also to the other countries of the Balkans. The Latin Empire used it to honour Alexius Slav, and it was introduced in Bulgaria to placate the powerful magnate (and later Tsar) George Terter in 1279/80. During the Serbian Empire it was widely awarded among the various Serbian magnates, with Jovan Oliver being the first holder, and it was held by lesser principalities as well, including the self-proclaimed Albanian despots of Arta.^[2][8] In the 15th century, the Venetian governors of Corfu were also styled as despots.^[2]

With the death of the last Byzantine Emperor Constantine XI on May 29, 1453, the creation of a despot became irregular. The title was granted by Pope Paul II to Andreas Palaiologos, heir to the Byzantine throne in 1465, and by the king of Hungary to the heirs of the Serbian Despotate.

Although the term originally had no negative or pejorative overtones, by the time of the Christian Reformation it began to take on authoritarian attributes and in that sense was synonymous with tyranny. It was used this way by the American Colonies against the British Parliament during the American Revolutionary War. Thomas Jefferson is noted for using despot exactly in that fashion.

Insignia

According to the mid-14th century Book of Offices of Pseudo-Kodinos and the descriptions given by the historian George Pachymeres, the despot's insignia were characterised by the colours purple and white and the rich decoration in pearls.^[9] In detail, the insignia were:

• A brimmed hat called skiadion studded with pearls, with a neck-cover with the owner's name embroidered in gold and pendants "similar to those of the emperor". The skiadion was an everyday headgear, but it was forbidden to despots who had not reached adolescence to wear it indoors.^[10] For ceremonies and festivities, the despot bore the domed skaranikon, decorated with gold metalword, precious stones and pearls.^[11]
• A red tunic similar to the emperor's, with gold embroideries of the rizai style but without military insignia, and a red cloak (tamparion) with broad stripes.^[12] For festive occasions, the long kaftan-like kabbadion was worn, of red or purple colour and decorated with pearls.^[13]
• A pair of purple and white soft boots, decorated with imperial eagles made of pearls on the instep. The spurs were also bi-coloured, purple and white.^[14] In a few cases were emperors wished to show special favour to a son (Constantine Palaiologos under Michael VIII Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos under John VI Kantakouzenos), red boots like the emperor's were substituted, elevating its holder to an undefined quasi-imperial rank "above the despots" (ὑπὲρ δεσπότας).^[15][16]
• The despot's saddle and horse furniture were similar to that of the emperor, likewise in purple and white, decorated with pearl eagles. The coating of the saddle and the despot's tent were white with small red eagles.^[17]

The despot also had the right to sign his letters with an ink of a dark red colour (the emperor's was bright red).^[18]

The insignia was modified in Bulgaria and Serbia according to local preferences.

List of known holders

See also

• Despotovac

References

Sources

• (Bulgarian) Biljarski, I.A. (1998). Instituciite na srednovekovna Bălgarija. Vtoro bălgarsko carstvo (XII–XIV v.) [Institutions of medieval Bulgaria. Second Bulgarian Empire (12th–14th c.)]. Sofia. 
• (French) Failler, Albert (1982). "Les insignes et la signature du despote". Revue des études byzantines 40: 171–186. doi:10.3406/rebyz.1982.2136. http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/article/rebyz_0766-5598_1982_num_40_1_2136. Retrieved 28 May 2011. 
• Ferjančić, Bozidar (1960). Despoti u Vizantiji i juznoslovenskim zemljama [Despots in Byzantium and South Slavic countries]. Belgrade. 
• Fine, John Van Antwerp (1994). The Late Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Late Twelfth Century to the Ottoman Conquest. University of Michigan Press. ISBN 978-0472082605. http://books.google.com/books?id=Hh0Bu8C66TsC. 
• Grierson, Philip; Bellinger, Alfred Raymond; Hendy, Michael F. (1993). Catalogue of the Byzantine coins in the Dumbarton Oaks Collection and in the Whittemore Collection. Dumbarton Oaks. ISBN 978-0-88-402045-5. 
• (French) Guilland, Rodolphe (1959). "Recherches sur l'histoire administrative de l'Empire byzantin: Le despote, δεσπότης". Revue des études byzantines 17: 52–89. doi:10.3406/rebyz.1959.1199. http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/article/rebyz_0766-5598_1959_num_17_1_1199. Retrieved 28 May 2011. 
• Kazhdan, Alexander, ed (1991). Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-504652-6. 
• Macrides, Ruth (2007). George Akropolites: The History – Introduction, translation and commentary. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-921067-1. 
• Nicol, Donald MacGillivray (1993). The Last Centuries of Byzantium, 1261–1453. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-43991-4. http://books.google.com/?id=y2d6OHLqwEsC 
• Nicol, Donald MacGillivray (2010). The Despotate of Epiros 1267–1479: A Contribution to the History of Greece in the Middle Ages. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521130899. http://books.google.com/books?id=XIj0FfKto9AC 
• Setton, Kenneth M. (1978). The Papacy and the Levant (1204–1571), Volume II: The Fifteenth Century. DIANE Publishing. ISBN 0-87169-127-2. http://books.google.com/books?id=0Sz2VYI0l1IC 
• Soulis, George Christos (1984). The Serbs and Byzantium during the reign of Tsar Stephen Dušan (1331–1355) and his successors. Dumbarton Oaks. ISBN 0-88402-137-8 
• (French) Verpeaux, Jean, ed (1966). Pseudo-Kodinos, Traité des Offices. Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique.