Kraków

For other uses, see Krakow (disambiguation) and Cracow (disambiguation).
Kraków
Cracow
Main Market Square, Wawel Castle, Barbican, St. Mary's Basilica, St. Peter and Paul Church, Collegium Maius

Flag
Coat of arms
Kraków
Coordinates:
Country  Poland
Voivodeship Lesser Poland
County Kraków County
City rights 5 June 1257
Government
 • Mayor Jacek Majchrowski
Area
 • City 327 km2 (126.3 sq mi)
Elevation 219 m (719 ft)
Population (2010)
 • City 756,267
 • Density 2,312.7/km2 (5,990/sq mi)
 • Metro 1,393,893
Demonym Cracovian
Time zone CET (UTC+1)
 • Summer (DST) CEST (UTC+2)
Postal code 30-024 to 31-962
Area code(s) +48 12
Website www.krakow.pl

Kraków (Polish pronunciation: [ˈkrakuf] ( listen)) also Cracow, or Krakow (English /ˈkrækaʊ/), is the second largest and one of the oldest cities in Poland. Situated on the Vistula River (Polish: Wisła) in the Lesser Poland region, the city dates back to the 7th century.[1] Kraków has traditionally been one of the leading centres of Polish academic, cultural, and artistic life and is one of Poland's most important economic hubs. It was the capital of Poland from 1038 to 1596; the capital of the Grand Duchy of Kraków from 1846 to 1918; and the capital of Kraków Voivodeship from the 14th century to 1999. It is now the capital of the Lesser Poland Voivodeship.

The city has grown from a Stone Age settlement to Poland's second most important city. It began as a hamlet on Wawel Hill and was already being reported as a busy trading centre of Slavonic Europe in 965.[1] With the establishment of new universities and cultural venues at the emergence of the Second Polish Republic and throughout the 20th century, Kraków reaffirmed its role as a major national academic and artistic centre. The city has a population of approximately 760,000 whereas about 8 million people live within a 100 km radius of its main square.[2]

After the invasion of Poland by Nazi Germany at the start of World War II, Kraków was turned into the capital of Germany's General Government. The Jewish population of the city was moved into a walled zone known as the Kraków Ghetto, from which they were sent to extermination camps such as Auschwitz and the concentration camp at Płaszów.

In 1978, Karol Wojtyła, archbishop of Kraków, was elevated to the papacy as Pope John Paul II – the first Slavic pope ever, and the first non-Italian pope in 455 years.[3] Also that year, UNESCO approved the first ever sites for its new World Heritage List, including the entire Old Town in inscribing Cracow's Historic Centre.[4][5]

Contents

Etymology

The name of Kraków is traditionally derived from Krakus (Krak, Grakch), the legendary founder of Kraków and a ruler of the tribe of Lechitians (Poles). In Polish, Kraków is an archaic possessive form of Krak and essentially means "Krak's (town)". Krakus's name may derive from "krakula", a Proto-Slavic word[6] meaning a judge's staff, or a Proto-Slavic word "krak" meaning an oak, once a sacred tree most often associated with the concept of genealogy. The first mention of Prince Krakus (then written as Grakch) dates back to 1190, although the town existed as early as the 7th century, inhabited by the tribe of Wiślanie.[1]

The city's full official name, used on ceremonial occasions, is Królewskie Stołeczne Miasto Kraków,[7] meaning "Royal Capital City of Kraków". In English, a person born, or living, in Kraków is a Cracovian (Polish: Krakowianin).

History

Main article: History of Kraków

Early history

Kraków's prehistory begins with evidence of a Stone Age settlement on the present site of the Wawel Hill.[8] A legend attributes Kraków's founding to the mythical ruler Krakus, who built it above a cave occupied by a dragon, Smok Wawelski.[9] The first written record of the city's name dates back to 966, when Kraków was described as a notable commercial centre owned by a Bohemian duke.[1] Mieszko took Kraków from Bohemians and incorporated it into the holdings of the Piast dynasty towards the end of his reign.[10]

In 1038, Kraków became the seat of the Polish government.[1] By the end of the 10th century, the city was a leading centre of trade.[11] Brick buildings were constructed, including the Royal Wawel Castle with St. Felix and Adaukt Rotunda, Romanesque churches such as St. Adalbert's, a cathedral, and a basilica.[12] The city was almost entirely destroyed during the Mongol invasion of 1241. It was rebuilt in a form practically unaltered, and incorporated in 1257 by the king, with city rights based on the Magdeburg law allowing for tax benefits and new trade privileges for its citizens.[13] In 1259, the city was again ravaged by the Mongols. A third attack followed in 1287, repelled thanks in part to the new built fortifications.[14]

The city rose to prominence in 1364, when Casimir III of Poland founded the University of Kraków,[15] the second oldest university in central Europe after the Charles University in Prague. The city continued to grow under the joint Lithuanian-Polish Jagiellon dynasty. As the capital of the Kingdom of Poland and a member of the Hanseatic League, the city attracted many craftsmen, businesses, and guilds as science and the arts began to flourish.[16]

Golden age

The 15th and 16th centuries were known as Poland's Złoty Wiek or Golden Age.[17] Many works of Polish Renaissance art and architecture were created then,[18][19] including ancient synagogues in Kraków's Jewish quarter of Kazimierz, such as the Old Synagogue.[20] During the reign of Casimir IV, various artists came to work and live in Kraków, and Johann Haller established a printing press in the city[21] after Kasper Straube had printed the Calendarium Cracoviense, the first work printed in Poland, in 1473.[22][23]

In 1520, the most famous church bell in Poland, named Zygmunt after Sigismund I of Poland, was cast by Hans Behem.[24] At that time, Hans Dürer, a younger brother of Albrecht Dürer, was Sigismund's court painter.[25] Hans von Kulmbach made altarpieces for several churches.[26] In 1572, King Sigismund II, the last of the Jagiellons, died childless. The Polish throne passed to Henry III of France and then to other foreign-based rulers in rapid succession, causing a decline in the city's importance that was worsened by pillaging during the Swedish invasion and by an outbreak of bubonic plague that left 20,000 of the city's residents dead. In 1596, Sigismund III of the Swedish House of Vasa moved the capital of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth from Kraków to Warsaw.[27]

18th to early 20th century

Already weakened during the 18th century, by the mid-1790s the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth had been twice partitioned by its neighbors: Russia, the Habsburg empire, and Prussia.[28] In 1794, Tadeusz Kościuszko initiated an unsuccessful insurrection in the town's Main Square which, in spite of his victorious Battle of Racławice against a numerically superior Russian army, resulted in the third and final partition of Poland.[29] Following the Uprising, Kraków became part of the Austrian partition in a province of the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria. In 1809, Napoleon Bonaparte captured former Polish territories from Austria and made the town part of the Duchy of Warsaw.[30] Following Napoleon's defeat in Russia, the Congress of Vienna in 1815 mostly restored earlier structures, although it also created the partially independent Free City of Kraków.[31] As in 1794, an insurrection in 1846 failed;[30] resulting in the city being annexed by Austria under the name the Grand Duchy of Krakow (Polish: Wielkie Księstwo Krakowskie).[32]

In 1866, Austria granted a degree of autonomy to Galicia after the Austro-Prussian War,[33] and Kraków became a Polish national symbol and a centre of culture and art, known frequently as the "Polish Athens" (Polskie Ateny) or "Polish Mecca".[34] Many leading Polish artists of the period resided in Kraków,[35] among them the seminal painter Jan Matejko,[36] laid to rest at Rakowicki Cemetery, and the founder of modern Polish drama, Stanisław Wyspiański.[37] Fin de siècle Kraków evolved into a modern metropolis; running water and electric streetcars were introduced in 1901, and between 1910 and 1915, Kraków and its surrounding suburban communities were gradually combined into a single administrative unit called Greater Kraków (Wielki Kraków).[38][39]

At the outbreak of World War I on 3 August 1914, Józef Piłsudski formed a small cadre military unit, the First Cadre Company—the predecessor of the Polish Legions—which set out from Kraków to fight for the liberation of Poland.[40] The city was briefly besieged by Russian troops in November 1914, but they were pushed back afterwards.[41] The Austrian rule in Kraków ended in 1918 when the Polish Liquidation Committee assumed power.[42][43]

1918 to the present

With the emergence of the Second Polish Republic, Kraków restored its role as a major academic and cultural centre with the establishment of new universities such as the AGH University of Science and Technology and the Jan Matejko Academy of Fine Arts, including a number of new and essential vocational schools. It became an important cultural centre for the Polish Jews with a Zionist youth movement relatively strong among the city's Jewish population.[44] Kraków was also an influential centre of Jewish spiritual life, with all its manifestations of religious observance from Orthodox, to Chasidic and Reform flourishing side by side.

Following the invasion of Poland in September 1939, the Nazi German forces turned the city into the capital of the General Government, a colonial authority headed by Hans Frank and seated in Wawel Castle. In an operation called "Sonderaktion Krakau", more than 180 university professors and academics were arrested and sent to Sachsenhausen and Dachau concentration camps, though the survivors were later released on the request of prominent Italians.[45][46] The Jewish population was first confined to a ghetto and later murdered or sent to concentration camps, including Płaszów and Auschwitz in Oświęcim.[47] Roman Polanski, the film director, is a survivor of the Ghetto, while Oskar Schindler, the German businessman portrayed in the Steven Spielberg film Schindler's List, selected employees from the Ghetto to work in his enamelware plant (Deutsche Emailwaren Fabrik, or Emalia for short), thus saving them from the camps.[48][49]

Kraków remained relatively undamaged at the end of World War II.[50] After the war, under the Stalinist regime, the intellectual and academic community of Kraków was put under total political control. The universities were soon deprived of their printing rights as well as their autonomy.[51] The communist government of the People's Republic of Poland ordered construction of the country's largest steel mill in the newly created suburb of Nowa Huta.[52] The creation of the giant Lenin Steelworks (now Sendzimir Steelworks owned by Mittal) sealed Kraków's transformation from a university city to an industrial centre.[53] The new working class, drawn by the industrialization of the city, contributed to its rapid population growth.

In an effort that spanned two decades, Karol Wojtyła, cardinal archbishop of Kraków, successfully lobbied for permission to build the first churches in the new industrial suburbs.[53][54] In 1978, Wojtyła was elevated to the papacy as John Paul II, the first non-Italian pope in 455 years. In the same year, UNESCO placed Kraków Old Town on the first ever list of World Heritage Sites.

Geography

Kraków lies in the southern part of Poland, on the Vistula River, in a valley at the foot of the Carpathian Mountains, 219 m (719 ft) above sea level; half way between the Jurassic Rock Upland (Polish: Jura Krakowsko-Częstochowska) to the north, and the Tatra Mountains 100 km (62 mi) to the south, constituting the natural border with Slovakia and the Czech Republic; 230 km west from the border with Ukraine. There are five nature reserves in Kraków, with a combined area of ca. 48.6 hectares (120 acres). Due to their ecological value, these areas are legally protected. The western part of the city, along its northern and north-western side, borders an area of international significance known as the Jurassic Bielany-Tyniec refuge. The main motives for the protection of this area include plant and animal wildlife and the area's geomorphological features and landscape.[55] Another part of the city is located within the ecological 'corridor' of the Vistula River valley. This corridor is also assessed as being of international significance as part of the Pan-European ecological network.[56] The city center is situated on the left (northern) bank of the river.

Climate

Kraków has an Oceanic climate (Cfb) according to the Köppen climate classification system, one of the easternmost localities in Europe to do so (East of Tarnów, and north of Kielce the January mean dips below −3 °C (27 °F) and thus becomes continental (Dfb) in nature). The city features a temperate climate. Average temperatures in summer range from 18 °C (64 °F) to 19.6 °C (67 °F) and in winter from −2.1 °C (28 °F) to 0 °C (32 °F). The average annual temperature is 8.9 °C (48 °F). In summer temperatures often exceed 25 °C (77 °F), and sometimes even 30 °C (86 °F), while winter drops to −5 °C (23 °F) at night and about 0 °C (32 °F) at day; during very cold nights the temperature drops to −15 °C (5 °F). In view of the fact that Kraków lies near the Tatra Mountains, there is often blowing halny – a foehn wind, when the temperature rises rapidly, and even in winter reaches to 20 °C (68 °F).

Climate data for Kraków
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Record high °C (°F) 15.7
(60.3)		 21.0
(69.8)		 25.2
(77.4)		 29.6
(85.3)		 33.3
(91.9)		 35.5
(95.9)		 36.1
(97.0)		 36.7
(98.1)		 33.1
(91.6)		 27.7
(81.9)		 21.2
(70.2)		 18.9
(66.0)		 36.7
(98.1)
Average high °C (°F) 1.1
(34.0)		 1.5
(34.7)		 7.9
(46.2)		 13.7
(56.7)		 19.8
(67.6)		 22.1
(71.8)		 24.2
(75.6)		 23.9
(75.0)		 19.2
(66.6)		 13.6
(56.5)		 5.0
(41.0)		 2.9
(37.2)		 12.9
(55.2)
Daily mean °C (°F) −2.1
(28.2)		 −1.8
(28.8)		 3.8
(38.8)		 9.6
(49.3)		 14.1
(57.4)		 18.0
(64.4)		 19.6
(67.3)		 19.3
(66.7)		 14.7
(58.5)		 9.2
(48.6)		 2.6
(36.7)		 0.0
(32.0)		 8.9
(48.0)
Average low °C (°F) −5.3
(22.5)		 −5.1
(22.8)		 −0.5
(31.1)		 5.5
(41.9)		 9.0
(48.2)		 13.8
(56.8)		 15.0
(59.0)		 14.7
(58.5)		 10.2
(50.4)		 4.8
(40.6)		 0.2
(32.4)		 −2.9
(26.8)		 5.0
(41.0)
Record low °C (°F) −29.9
(−21.8)		 −29.4
(−20.9)		 −22.9
(−9.2)		 −9.4
(15.1)		 −2.7
(27.1)		 0.6
(33.1)		 4.3
(39.7)		 2.0
(35.6)		 −4.1
(24.6)		 −7.9
(17.8)		 −17.7
(0.1)		 −25.5
(−13.9)		 −29.9
(−21.8)
Precipitation mm (inches) 34
(1.34)		 34
(1.34)		 35
(1.38)		 42
(1.65)		 56
(2.2)		 84
(3.31)		 90
(3.54)		 82
(3.23)		 55
(2.17)		 44
(1.73)		 41
(1.61)		 34
(1.34)		 631
(24.84)
% humidity 82 82 77 68 63 69 71 74 75 79 83 86 76
Avg. precipitation days 15 12 13 9 11 12 13 13 11 12 14 12 147
Sunshine hours 43 54 102 144 189 204 208 183 153 105 51 33 1,469
Source: Institute of Meteorology and Water Management[57]

Cityscape

A panorama of central Kraków, as seen from the Krakus Mound to the east of the city's centre.
Cracow's Historic Centre *
Country Poland
Type Cultural
Criteria IV
Reference 29
Region ** Europe and North America
Inscription history
Inscription 1978 (2nd Session)
* Name as inscribed on World Heritage List
** Region as classified by UNESCO

As Kraków is a city that has developed over many centuries it provides a showcase setting for many various styles of architecture. As the city developed, so too did the style of architecture practised by its builders and architects. It is for this reason that the way in which architecture and urban planning developed in the city is very visible. Being a city which developed from a nucleus (the city centre) outwards, and having escaped much of the destruction endured by Poland during recent wars, Kraków's many architectural styles can typically be seen in chronological order by simply walking from the city centre out towards its environs.

Kraków's historic center, which includes the Old Town, Kazimierz and the Wawel Castle, was included as the first of its kind on the list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites in 1978.[58] The Old Town (Polish: Stare Miasto) is the most prominent example of an old town in the country.[59] For many centuries Kraków was the royal capital of Poland, until Sigismund III Vasa relocated the court to Warsaw in 1596. The whole district is bisected by the Royal Road, the coronation route traversed by the Kings of Poland. The Route begins at St. Florian's Church outside the northern flank of the old city walls in the medieval suburb of Kleparz; passes the Barbican of Kraków (Barbakan) built in 1499, and enters Stare Miasto through the Florian Gate. It leads down Floriańska Street through the Main Square, and up Grodzka to Wawel, the former seat of Polish royalty overlooking the Vistula river. Old Town attracts visitors from all over the World. Kraków historic center is one of the 13 places in Poland that are included in the UNESCO World Heritage Sites. The architectural design of the Old Town had survived all cataclysms of the past and retained its original form coming from the medieval times. The Old Town district of Kraków is home to about six thousand historic sites and more than two million works of art.[60] Its rich variety of historic architecture includes Renaissance, Baroque and Gothic buildings. Kraków's palaces, churches, theatres and mansions display great variety of color, architectural details, stained glass, paintings, sculptures, and furnishings.

In addition to the old town, the city's former Jewish district of Kazmierz is particularly noted for its many renaissance buildings and picturesque streets. Kazimierz developed from the 14th century onwards to the south-east of the city centre and soon became a wealthy, well-populated area where construction of imposing properties became a necessity. Perhaps the most important feature of medieval Kazimierz was the Pons Regalis, the only major, permanent bridge across the Vistula for several centuries. This bridge connected Krakow via Kazimierz to the Wieliczka Salt Mine and the lucrative Hungarian trade route. The last bridge at this location (at the end of modern Stradom Street) was dismantled in 1880 when the filling in of the Old Vistula river bed made it obsolete.[61] In 1362, defensive walls were built around Kazimierz's newly-built central section and a plot was set aside for the Augustinian order next to Skałka. Casimir the Great (for whom the district is named) also began work on a campus for the Cracow Academy (later Jagiellonian University) he founded in 1364, but Casimir died in 1370 and the campus was never completed.[62]

Later, for its own defence against Christian raids, the district's kahal petitioned the Kazimierz town council for the right to build its own interior wall, cutting across the western end of the older defensive walls in 1553. Due to the growth of the community, the walls were expanded again in 1608. However, later requests to expand the walls were turned down.[63] In 1791, Kazimierz lost its status as a separate city and became a district of Kraków. The richer Jewish families quickly moved out of the overcrowded streets of eastern Kazimierz. Because of the injunction against travel on the Sabbath, however, most Jewish families stayed relatively close to the historic synagogues in the old Oppidum, maintaining Kazimierz’s reputation as a “Jewish district” long after the concept ceased to have any administrative meaning. By the 1930s, Kraków had 120 officially registered synagogues and prayer houses scattered across the city and much of Jewish intellectual life had moved to new centres like Podgórze.[64] This in turn then led to the redevelopment and renovation of much of Kazimierz and the development of new districts in Kraków. Most of the buildings in the Oppidum (central Kazimierz) are preserved today in something close to their 18th century form. Unfortunately other, less fortunate, old buildings were not repaired after the devastation brought by the Second World War and consequently became empty shells; since 1993 however, efforts at restoring the district have gained new impetus and Kazimierz has now become a well-visited area, seeing a booming growth in Jewish-themed restaurants, bars, bookstores and souvenir shops.

As the city of Kraków began to expand further under the rule of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the predominant architectural styles practised in the city also developed. Key buildings from the 19th and early 20th centuries in Kraków include the Jan Matejko Academy of Fine Arts, the directorate of the Polish State Railways and the original buildings of Kraków main station and the city's Academy of Economics. It was also at around this time that Kraków's first large radial boulevards began to appear, with the city undergoing a large scale program aimed at transforming the ancient capital of Poland into a sophisticated regional capital of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Large representative government buildings and multi-story tenement houses forst began to appear in Kraków during the period of Austro-Hungarian rule, and it is now clear to see that much of the city centre beyond the Old Town was greatly influenced by the urban-planning and architectural practices of architects and engineers trained in Vienna. Other major projects of the era included the development of the Jagiellonian University's premises in the city and the building of the Collegium Novum just west of the Old Town. Such development of the city continued up until the independence of Poland after the First World War. Early modernist styling in Kraków is represented by such masterpieces as the 'House under the Globe'. Secession style architecture, which had arrived in Kraków from Vienna, became popular towards the end of Austro-Hungarian rule.[66]

With Poland's independence came a major change in the fortunes of Kraków; now the second city of a major European nation, the state began to draw up grandiose plans for the city which would see it expand in all directions and acquire a number of new, large representative buildings. At the time the predominant style for new construction projects in Kraków was modernism and particular interpretations of the art-deco style.[67] Important buildings of the era constructed in the style of 'Polish Modernism' include the Feniks 'LOT' building on Basztowa Street, the Feniks department store on the Main Square and the Municipal Savings Bank on Plac Szczepański. The Józef Piłsudski house is also of note as a particularly outstanding example of inter-war Polish architecture in the city.[68]

After the Second World War, architecture in Kraków turned towards socialist realism and soviet monumental classicism. The doctrine of socialist realism in Poland, as in other countries of the People's Republics, was enforced from 1949 to 1956. It involved all domains of art, but its most spectacular achievements were made in the field of architecture. The main lines of this new trend were very precisely indicated in a 1949 resolution of the National Council of Party Architects. Architecture was an extremely important weapon to the creators of a new social order. It was intended to help to form a socialist theme - the ideas sparking citizens' consciousness and outlook on life.[69] During this great work, a crucial role fell to an architect who wasn't perceived as merely an engineer creating streets and edifices, but an "engineer of the human soul". The general outlook of a building was more valued than its simple aesthetics. It needed to express social ideas, to arouse a feeling of persistence and power. This form of architecture was practiced in Kraków in the new post-war residential district of Nowa Huta, an area of huge, over-bearing, but outstanding apartment buildings which were built according to a strict plan and were designed to face onto courtyards and wide, tree-lined avenues.[70]

Since the style of the Renaissance was generally regarded as the most revered in old Polish architecture, it was to become also Poland's socialist national format. However, in the course of incorporating the principles of socialist realism, there were quite a few deviations introduced. One of these was to more closely reflect Soviet architecture, which resulted in the majority of works blending into one another; and finally the general acceptance of the classicist form. From 1953, critical opinions were increasingly frequently heard, and the doctrine was finally given up in 1956.[72] Currently the soc-realist city centre is considered to be a meritorious architectural monument. This development in architecture was followed by the mass-construction of panel-constructed blocks, most of which were built outside of the city's historic centre and thus do not encroach upon the beauty of the old or new towns. However, some monuments such as the recently listed Hotel Cracovia[73] were built during the later half of the 20th century in Kraków.

With the advent of the 1990s and birth of the third republic, a number of architectural styles came to Kraków. In the later half of the 20th century and beginning of the 21st, a number of major projects, including the construction of a number of large business parks, commercial facilities such as Galeria Krakowska and infrastructure investments like the Krakow Fast Tram have been carried out, giving the city a great deal of quality modern architecture which, in many cases, blends seamlessly with the city's centuries old architectural heritage. A good example of this would be the 2007-built Pawilon Wspiański 2000[71] which is used as a multi-purpose information and exhibition space.

Parks and gardens

There are dozens of gardens, parks and forests in Kraków, several, like the Planty Park, Botanical Garden, Park Krakowski, Jordan Park, Błonia Park and Strzelecki Park], are located in the center of the city and the surrounding districts.

The Planty Park is the best-known park in Kraków. It was established between 1822 and 1830 in place of the old city walls, forming a green belt around the Old Town. It consists of a chain of smaller gardens designed in various styles and adorned with monuments. The park has an area of 21 hectares (52 acres) and a length of 4 kilometers (2.5 mi), forming a scenic walkway popular with Cracovians.[13]

The Jordan Park, the first public park equipped with exercise fixtures, was founded in 1889 by Dr Henryk Jordan on the banks of the Rudawa river. The park equipped with running and exercise tracks, playgrounds, swimming pool, amphitheatre, pavilions, and a pond for boat rowing and water bicycles, is located on the grounds of Kraków’s Błonia Park.[74] The less prominent Park Krakowski was founded in 1885 by Stanisław Rehman but has since been greatly reduced in size because of rapid real estate development. It was a popular destination point with many Cracovians at the end of the 19th century.[75]

Points of interest outside the city include the Wieliczka salt mine, the Tatra Mountains 100 km (62 mi) to the south, the historic city of Częstochowa, the former Nazi concentration camp at Auschwitz, and Ojcowski National Park,[76] which includes Pieskowa Skała Castle.[77]

Governance

For more details on this topic, see Local government in Kraków.

The Kraków City Council has 43 elected members,[78] one of whom is the mayor, or President of Kraków, elected every four years. The election of the City Council and of the local head of government,[79] which takes place at the same time, is based on legislation introduced on 20 June 2002. The current President of Kraków, re-elected for his third term in 2010, is Professor Jacek Majchrowski.[80] Several members of the Polish national Parliament (Sejm) are elected from the Kraków constituency.[81] The city's official symbols include a coat of arms, a flag, a seal, and a banner.[7]

The responsibilities of Kraków’s president include drafting and implementing resolutions, enacting city bylaws, managing the city budget, employing city administrators, and preparing against floods and natural disasters.[79] The president fulfills his duties with the help of the City Council, city managers and city inspectors. In the 1990s, the city government was reorganized to better differentiate between its political agenda and administrative functions. As a result, the Office of Public Information was created to handle inquiries and foster communication between city departments and citizens at large.[82]

In the year 2000, the city government introduced a new long-term program called "Safer City" in cooperation with the Police, Traffic, Social Services, Fire, Public Safety, and the Youth Departments. Subsequently, the number of criminal offences went down by 3 percent between 2000 and 2001, and the rate of detection increased by 1.4 percent to a total of 30.2 percent in the same period.[83] The city is receiving help in carrying out the program from all educational institutions and the local media, including TV, radio and the press.

Districts

Main article: Districts of Kraków

Kraków is divided into 18 administrative districts (dzielnica) or boroughs, each with a degree of autonomy within its own municipal government.[84] Prior to March 1991, the city had been divided into four quarters which still give a sense of identity to Kraków - the towns of Podgórze, Nowa Huta, and Krowodrza which were absorbed by Kraków as it expanded, and the ancient town center of Kraków itself.[84]

The oldest neighborhoods of Kraków were incorporated into the city before the late 18th century. They include the Old Town (Stare Miasto), once contained within the city defensive walls and now encircled by the Planty park; the Wawel District, which is the site of the Royal Castle and the cathedral; Stradom and Kazimierz, the latter originally divided into Christian and Jewish quarters;[85] as well as the ancient town of Kleparz.

Major districts added in the 19th and 20th centuries include Podgórze, which until 1915 was a separate town on the southern bank of the Vistula, and Nowa Huta, east of the city centre, built after World War II.

Among the most notable historic districts of the city are: Wawel Hill, home to Wawel Castle and Wawel Cathedral, where many Polish kings are buried; the medieval Old Town, with its Main Market Square (200 metres (660 ft) square); dozens of old churches and museums; the 14th-century buildings of the Jagiellonian University; and Kazimierz, the historical center of Kraków's Jewish social and religious life.[86]

The Old Town district of Kraków is home to about six thousand historic sites and more than two million works of art.[60] Its rich variety of historic architecture includes Renaissance, Baroque and Gothic buildings. Kraków's palaces, churches and mansions display great variety of color, architectural details, stained glass, paintings, sculptures, and furnishings.

In the Market Square stands the Gothic St. Mary's Basilica (Kościół Mariacki). It was re-built in the 14th century and features the famous wooden altar (Ołtarz Wita Stwosza), the largest Gothic altarpiece in the World,[87] carved by Veit Stoss. From the church's main tower a trumpet call (hejnał mariacki), is sounded every hour. The melody, which used to announce the opening and closing of city-gates, ends unexpectedly in midstream. According to legend, the tune was played during the 13th-century Tatar invasion by a guard warning citizens against the attack. He was shot by a Tatar archer while playing, the bugle-call breaking off at the moment he died.[88] The story was recounted in a book published in the late 1920s called The Trumpeter of Krakow, which won a Newbery Award.[89]

District Population Area (2009)[90]
Stare Miasto (I) 41,121 559.29 ha (5.5929 km2)
Grzegórzki (II) 30,441 586.18 ha (5.8618 km2)
Prądnik Czerwony (III) 46,621 638.82 ha (6.3882 km2)
Prądnik Biały (IV) 66,649 2,370.55 ha (23.7055 km2)
Łobzów (V) 34,467 538.32 ha (5.3832 km2)
Bronowice (VI) 22,467 957.98 ha (9.5798 km2)
Zwierzyniec (VII) 20,243 2,866.9 ha (28.669 km2)
Dębniki (VIII) 56,258 4,671.11 ha (46.7111 km2)
Łagiewniki-Borek Fałęcki (IX) 15,014 573.9 ha (5.739 km2)
Swoszowice (X) 20,641 2,416.73 ha (24.1673 km2)
Podgórze Duchackie (XI) 52,522 1,065.24 ha (10.6524 km2)
Bieżanów-Prokocim (XII) 63,270 1,846.93 ha (18.4693 km2)
Podgórze (XIII) 32,050 2,516.07 ha (25.1607 km2)
Czyżyny (XIV) 26,169 1,229.44 ha (12.2944 km2)
Mistrzejowice (XV) 54,276 547.82 ha (5.4782 km2)
Bieńczyce (XVI) 44,237 369.43 ha (3.6943 km2)
Wzgórza Krzesławickie (XVII) 20,234 2,375.82 ha (23.7582 km2)
Nowa Huta (XVIII) 58,320 6,552.52 ha (65.5252 km2)
Total 705,000 27,953.89 ha (279.5389 km2)

The current divisions were introduced by the Kraków City Hall on 19 April 1995. Districts were assigned Roman numerals as well as the current name:[91] Stare Miasto (I), Grzegórzki (II), Prądnik Czerwony (III), Prądnik Biały (IV), Łobzów (V), Bronowice (VI), Zwierzyniec (VII), Dębniki (VIII), Łagiewniki-Borek Fałęcki (IX), Swoszowice (X), Podgórze Duchackie (XI), Bieżanów-Prokocim (XII), Podgórze (XIII), Czyżyny (XIV), Mistrzejowice (XV), Bieńczyce (XVI), Wzgórza Krzesławickie (XVII), and Nowa Huta (XVIII).

IV
VI
VII
V
I
II
IX
III
XVII
X
VIII
XI
XII
XIII
XIV
XVIII
XV
XVI
Interactive map of Kraków districts. Please hoover over numbers

Economy

Kraków is one of Poland's most important economic centers, and the economic hub of the Lesser Poland (Małopolska) region.[92][93] Following the collapse of communism, the private sector has been growing steadily. There are about 50 large multinational companies in the city, including Google, IBM, Motorola, Delphi, MAN SE, General Electric, Hitachi, Philip Morris, Capgemini,[94] and Sabre Holdings,[95] along with other British, German and Scandinavian-based firms.[92][96] In 2005, Foreign direct investment in Kraków has reached approximately 3.5 billion USD. Kraków has been trying to position itself as Europe's Silicon Valley,[97] based on the large number of local and foreign hi tech companies.[92] The unemployment rate in Kraków was 4.8 percent in May 2007, well below the national average of 13 percent.[93][98] Kraków is the second city in Poland (after Warsaw) most often visited by foreigners.[92][93] According to the World Investment Report 2011 by the UN Conference for Trade and Development (UNCTAD), Kraków is also the most emerging city location for investment in global BPO projects (Business Process Outsourcing) in the world.[99]

In 2011, the city budget, which is presented by the Mayor of Kraków on November 15 each year, has a projected revenue of 3,5 billion złoty.[100] The primary sources of revenue were as follows: 14% from the municipal taxation on real estate properties and the use of amenities, 30% in transfers from the national budget, and 34% in state subsidies. Projected expenditures, totaling 3,52 billion złoty, included 21% in city development costs and 79% in city maintenance costs. Of the maintenance costs, as much as 39% were spent on education and childcare. City of Kraków development costs included 41% toward road building, transport, and communication (combined), and 25% for the city's infrastructure and environment.[101] The city has a high bond credit rating, and some 60% of its population is below the age of 45.[93]

Knowledge and Innovation Community EIT

Krakow is one of the co-location centres of Knowledge and Innovation Community (Sustainable Energy) of The European Institute of Innovation and Technology (EIT).[102] The complete list of co-location centers - KIC Inno Energy include: CC Germany in Karlsruhe, CC Alps Valleys in Grenoble, CC Benelux in Eindhoven/Leuven, CC Iberia in Barcelona, CC PolandPlus in Krakow, and CC Sweden in Stockholm.

InnoEnergy is an integrated alliance of reputable organizations from the education, research and industry sectors. It was created based on long standing links of cooperation as well as the principles of excellence. The partners have jointly developed a strategy to tackle the weaknesses of the European innovation landscape in the field of sustainable energy.[103]

Transport

Main article: Transport in Kraków

Public transport is based on a fairly dense network of streetcar and bus lines operated by a municipal company, supplemented by a number of private minibus operators. Local trains connect some of the suburbs. The bulk of the city’s historic area has been turned into a pedestrian zone with rickshaws and horse buggies; however, the tramlines run within a three-block radius.[104]

Rail connections are available to most Polish cities. Trains to Warsaw depart every hour. International destinations include Berlin, Budapest, Prague, Hamburg, Lvov, Kiev, and Odessa (June–September).[105] The main railway station is located just outside the Old Town District and is well-served by public transport.

The Kraków airport, (John Paul II International Airport Kraków-Balice, Polish: Międzynarodowy Port Lotniczy im. Jana Pawła II Kraków-Balice,(IATA: KRK)) is 11 km (7 mi) west of the city. Direct trains cover the route between Kraków Główny train station and the airport in 15 minutes. The annual capacity of the airport is estimated at 1.3 million passengers (second largest airport in Poland); however, in 2007 more than 3.042 million people used the airport, giving Kraków Airport 15 percent of all air passenger traffic in Poland. The passenger terminal is undergoing extension and is being adapted to meet the requirements of the Schengen Treaty.[106] Currently, the airport offers 59 connections and is operated by 2 terminals (international T1 and national T2). The Katowice International Airport is located about 75 minutes from Krakow.[107]

Demographics

See also: Urban demographics of Poland

Krakow had a recorded population of 754,854 in 2009.[108] According to the 2006 data,[109] the population of Kraków comprised about 2% of the population of Poland and 23% of the population of the Lesser Poland Voivodeship. Selected demographic indicators are presented in a table (below), compiled on the basis of only the population living in Kraków permanently. The larger metropolitan area of the city encompasses a territory in which (in 2010) 1,393,893 inhabitants live.[110]

 Demographic indicators[109]   Years   Kraków 
Population
in thousands
1970
1978
1988
1995
2002
588,0
693,6
746,6
732,9
758,5
Population density
person/km²
1970
1978
1988
1995
2002
2,556
2,156
2,285
2,243
2,320
Number of women
per 100 men
1970
1978
1988
1995
2002
110
110
110
112
113
Population growth
per 1000
1998
1999
2000
2001
−1.3
−1.7
−1.5
−1.5

In the historical 1931 census preceding World War II, 78.1% of Cracovians declared Polish as their primary language, with Yiddish or Hebrew at 20.9%, Ukrainian 0.4%, German 0.3%, and Russian 0.1%.[111] The ravages of history have greatly reduced the percentage of ethnic minorities living in Kraków. The official and unofficial numbers differ, as in the case of Romani people. Hence, according to the 2002 census,[112] among those who have declared their national identity (irrespective of language and religion) in Kraków Voivodeship, 1,572 were Slovaks, followed by Ukrainians (472), Jews (50) and Armenians (22). Romani people, officially numbered at 1,678, are estimated at over 5,000. Statistics collected by the Ministry of Education reveal that, even though only 1% of adults (as per above) officially claim minority status, as many as 3% of students participate in programmes designed for ethnic minorities.[113]

Population growth in Kraków since 1791


Religion in Kraków

Main articles: Churches of Kraków and Synagogues of Kraków

The metropolitan city of Kraków is known as the city of churches. The abundance of landmark, historic temples along with the plenitude of monasteries and convents earned the city a countrywide reputation as the "Northern Rome" in the past. The churches of Kraków comprise over 120 places of worship of which over sixty were built in the 20th century.[114] Denominations include Roman Catholicism (48 Churches), Jehovah's Witnesses (10 Kingdom Hall), Protestantism (8 Churches), Buddhism (5), Polish Orthodox Church (1 Church), Polish Catholic Church (1 Church) and Mariavite Church.

Kraków contains also an outstanding collection of monuments of Jewish sacred architecture unmatched anywhere in Poland. Kraków was an influential center of Jewish spiritual life before the outbreak of World War II, with all its manifestations of religious observance from Orthodox to Chasidic and Reform flourishing side by side. There were at least ninety synagogues in Kraków active before the Nazi German invasion of Poland, serving its burgeoning Jewish community of 60,000–80,000 (out of the city's total population of 237,000), established since the early 12th century.[115]

Most synagogues of Kraków were ruined during World War II by the Nazis who despoiled them of all ceremonial objects, and used them as storehouses for ammunition, firefighting equipment, as general storage facilities and stables. The post-Holocaust Jewish population of the city had dwindled to about 5,900 before the end of 1940s, and by 1978, the number was further reduced in size to a mere 600 by some estimates. In recent time, thanks to the efforts of the local Jewish and Polish organizations including foreign financial aid from the American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee, many synagogues underwent major restorations, while others continue to serve as apartments.[115]

Education

Main article: Education in Kraków

Kraków is a major centre of education. More than ten university or academy-level institutions offer courses in the city, with 170,000 students.[92] Jagiellonian University, the oldest and best known university in Poland and ranked by the Times Higher Education Supplement as the best university in the country,[116][117] was founded in 1364 as the Cracow University and renamed in 1817 to commemorate the Jagiellonian dynasty of Polish-Lithuanian kings.[118] Its principal academic asset is the Jagiellonian Library, with more than 4 million volumes, including a large collection of medieval manuscripts[119] like Copernicus' De Revolutionibus and the Balthasar Behem Codex. With 42,325 students (2005) and 3,605 academic staff, the Jagiellonian University is also one of the leading research centres in Poland. Famous historical figures connected with the University include Saint John Cantius, Jan Długosz, Nicolaus Copernicus, Andrzej Frycz Modrzewski, Jan Kochanowski, King John III Sobieski, Pope John Paul II and Nobel laureates Ivo Andrić and Wisława Szymborska.[120]

AGH University of Science and Technology, established in 1919, is the second-largest technical university in Poland, with more than 15 faculties and student enrollment exceeding 30,000.[121] It was ranked by the Polish edition of Newsweek as the best technical university in the country for the year 2004.[122] During its 80-year history, more than 73,000 students graduated from AGH with master's or bachelor's degrees. Some 3,600 persons were granted the degree of Doctor of Science, and about 900 obtained the qualification of Habilitated Doctor.[123]

Other institutions of higher learning include Academy of Music in Kraków first conceived as conservatory in 1888, one of the oldest and most prestigious conservatories in Central Europe and a major concert venue;[124] Cracow University of Economics, established in 1925;[125] Pedagogical University, in operation since 1946;[126] Agricultural University of Cracow, offering courses since 1890 (initially as a part of Jagiellonian University);[127] Academy of Fine Arts, the oldest Fine Arts Academy in Poland, founded by the Polish painter Jan Matejko; Ludwik Solski Academy for the Dramatic Arts;[128] The Pontifical Academy of Theology;[129] and Cracow University of Technology, which has more than 37,000 graduates.

Culture

Main articles: Culture of Kraków, Events in Kraków, and Kraków - Stare Miasto

Kraków, the unofficial cultural capital of Poland,[130][131][132] was named the official European Capital of Culture for the year 2000 by the European Union.[133] It is a major attraction for both local and international tourists, attracting seven million visitors a year.[134] Major landmarks include the Main Market Square with St. Mary's Basilica and the Sukiennice Cloth Hall, the Wawel Castle, the National Art Museum, the Zygmunt Bell at the Wawel Cathedral, and the medieval St Florian's Gate with the Barbican along the Royal Coronation Route.[135] Kraków has 28 museums and public art galleries. Among them are the main branch of Poland's National Museum and the Czartoryski Museum, the latter featuring works by Leonardo da Vinci and Rembrandt.

Museums and National Art Galleries

Kraków's 28 museums are separated into the national and municipal museums; the city also has a number of art collections and public art galleries. The National Museum established in 1879, which is the main branch of Poland's National Museum with permanent collections around the country, as well as the National Art Collection on Wawel Hill are all accessible to the general public and well patroned. Meanwhile the Czartoryski Museum features works by Leonardo and Rembrandt.

The National Art Collection is located at the Wawel, the former residence of three dynasties of Polish monarchs. Royal Chambers feature art, period furniture, Polish and European paintings, collectibles, and an unsurpassed display of the 16th-century monumental Flemish tapestries. Wawel Treasury and Armoury features Polish royal memorabilia, jewels, applied art, and 15th to 18th century arms. The Wawel Eastern Collection features Turkish tents and military accessories. The National Museum is the richest museum in the country with collections consisting of several hundred thousand items kept in big part in the Main Building at Ul. 3 Maja, however there are actually nine sperate divisions of the museum in the city.

Kraków's renowned Juliusz Słowacki Theatre.

Other major museums of interest in Kraków inclue:

Performing arts

The city has several famous theatres, including the Narodowy Stary Teatr (the National Old Theatre),[140] the Juliusz Słowacki Theatre, the Bagatela Theatre, the Ludowy Theatre, and the Groteska Theatre of Puppetry, as well as the Opera Krakowska and Kraków Operetta. The city's principal concert hall and the home of the Kraków Philharmonic Orchestra is the Kraków Philharmonic (Filharmonia Krakowska) built in 1931.[141]

Kraków hosts many annual and biannual artistic events,[142] some of international significance such as the Misteria Paschalia (Baroque music), Sacrum-Profanum (contemporary music), the Cracow Screen Festival (popular music), the Festival of Polish Music (classical music), Dedications (theatre), the Kraków Film Festival (one of Europe's oldest short films events),[143] Biennial of Graphic Arts, and the Jewish Culture Festival. Kraków was the residence of two Polish Nobel laureates in literature, Wisława Szymborska and Czesław Miłosz; a third Nobel laureate, the Yugoslav writer Ivo Andric, lived and studied in Kraków. Other former longtime residents include internationally-renowned Polish film directors Andrzej Wajda and Roman Polanski.

Music

Opera Krakowska[144] one of the leading national opera companies, stages 200 performances each year including ballet, operettas and musicals. It has, in its main repertoire, the greatest world and Polish opera classics. The Opera moved into its first permanent House in the autumn of 2008. It is in charge also of the Summer Festival of Opera and Operetta.

Cracow is home to two major Polish festivals of early music presenting forgotten Baroque oratorios and operas: Opera Rara[145] and Misteria Paschalia.[146] Meanwhile, Capella Cracoviensis runs the Music in Old Cracow International Festival.

Academy of Music in Kraków, founded in 1888, is known world-wide as the alma mater of the contemporary Polish composer Krzysztof Penderecki, and it is also the only one in Poland to have two winners of the International Chopin Competition in Warsaw among its alumni. The Academy organizes concerts of its students and guests throughout the whole year.[147]

Music organizations and venues include: Kraków Philharmonic,[148] Sinfonietta Cracovia (a.k.a. The Orchestra of the Royal City of Kraków), The Polish Radio Choir of Kraków, Organum Academic Choir, Mixed Marian Choir Association (Mieszany Chór Mariański), Krakow Academic Choir of the Jagiellonian University, Krakow Chamber Choir, Amar Corde String Quartet, Consortium Iagellonicum Baroque Orchestra of the Jagiellonian University, Brass Band of T. Sendzimir Steelworks, and Camerata Chamber Orchestra of Radio Kraków.

Sports

Football is one of the most popular sports in the city,[149] and the teams with the largest following are thirteen-time Polish champions Wisła Kraków,[150] and five-time champions Cracovia.[151] Other football clubs include Hutnik Kraków, Wawel Kraków and one-time Polish champion Garbarnia Kraków. There is also the first-league rugby club Juvenia Kraków. Kraków has a number of additional, equally valued sports teams including eight-time Polish ice hockey champions Cracovia Kraków and the twenty-time women's basketball champions Wisła Kraków.

The Cracovia Marathon, with over a thousand participants from two dozen countries annually, has been held in the city since 2002.[152] Poland's first F1 racing driver Robert Kubica was born and brought up in Krakow, as was Top 10 ranked womans tennis player Agnieszka Radwańska.

The construction of the new Krakow Arena has started in May 2011. For concerts, indoor athletics, hockey, basketball, futsal. The Arena will be ready in 2013 cost will be 363 million zł Will serve the viewers up to 15 thousand. In the case of concert, when the scene is set on the lower arena, hall can accommodate up to 18 thousand people.

Around the city

International relations

See also: List of twin towns and sister cities in Poland

Contemporary foreign names for the city

Kraków is referred to by various names in different languages. The city is known in Czech and Slovak as Krakov, in Hungarian as Krakkó, in Lithuanian as Krokuva, in German as Krakau, in Latin, Spanish and Italian as Cracovia, in French as Cracovie, in Portuguese as Cracóvia and in Russian as Краков. Ukrainian and Yiddish languages refer to it as Krakiv (Краків) and Kroke (קראָקע) respectively.[153] Names of Kraków in different languages are also available.

Twin towns — Sister cities

Kraków is twinned, or maintains close relations, with more than 30 cities around the world:[154]

Bordeaux, France (since 1993)[154]
Bratislava, Slovakia [154][155]
Budapest, Hungary (since 2005)[154]
Cambridge, Mass., USA (since 1989)[156]
Curitiba, Brazil (since 1993)[154]
Cusco, Peru [154][157]
Edinburgh, Scotland (since 1995) [158]
Fes, Morocco (since 2004)[154]
Florence, Italy (since 1992)[154]
Frankfurt, Germany (since 1991)[154][159]
Göteborg, Sweden (since 1990)[154]

Grozny, Russia (since 1997) [160]
Innsbruck in Austria (since 1998)[154]
Kiev, Ukraine (since 1993)[154]
Lahore, Pakistan
La Serena, Chile (since 1995)[154]
Leipzig, Germany (since 1995)[154][161]
Leuven, Belgium (since 1991)[154]
Lviv, Ukraine (since 1995)[154]
Milan, Italy (since 2003)[154][162]
Nuremberg, Germany (since 1991)[154]
Orléans, France (since 1992)[154]

Pécs, Hungary (since 1998)[154]
Rochester, NY, USA (since 1973)[154]
Quito, Ecuador [154]
St Petersburg, Russia (since 2006)[154]
San Francisco, CA, USA (since 2009)[154]
 Seville, Spain (since 2002)[154]
Solothurn, Switzerland (since 1990)[154]
Tbilisi, Georgia[154]
Veliko Turnovo, Bulgaria (since 1975)[154]
Vilnius, Lithuania[154]
Zagreb, Croatia (since 1975)[154][163][164] Split, Croatia [154][163][154]

See also

References

Bibliography

Notes

  1. ^ a b c d e The Municipality Of Kraków Press Office, 1996–2007, in participation with ACK Cyfronet of the AGH University of Science and Technology, "Our City. History of Krakow, archaeological findings". http://www.krakow.pl/en/miasto/?id=dzieje.html. Retrieved 2007-09-11. 
  2. ^ Kraków, at Cracow.welcome.com
  3. ^ The judge: William P. Clark, Ronald ... - Google Books. books.google.co.uk. 2007-10. ISBN 9781586171834. http://books.google.com/?id=3FV3puE5hdQC&pg=PA171&dq=first+non-Italian+pope+in+455+years. Retrieved 2009-07-19. 
  4. ^ Properties inscribed on the World Heritage list, Poland. UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Last updated: 3 September 2010
  5. ^ 2nd session of the Committee UNESCO World Heritage Committee. Washington, D.C. 5–8 September 1978.
  6. ^ (Polish) Maria Curie-Skłodowska University, Lublin. Historical forum, "Krak or Krakus?". http://www.historycy.org/index.php?showtopic=20414. Retrieved 2007-06-10. 
  7. ^ a b (Polish) October 9, 2002 Ordinance of the Kraków City Council no. CXXIII/1150/02 on the symbols of the Royal Capital City of Kraków (PDF) and February 6, 2004 Ordinance of the Mayor of Kraków no. 167/2004 on the use of the symbols of the Royal Capital City of Kraków (PDF)
  8. ^ "Wawel Kraków". http://www.cracow-life.com/poland/wawel-krakow-castle. Retrieved 2007-09-12.  Wawel Hill past and present
  9. ^ Wawel Royal Castle, homepage. Maria Dębicka, "The Dragon’s Den". http://www.cyfronet.pl/waweln/en/index.php?op=11,1,5. Retrieved 2007-09-11. 
  10. ^ Charles Cawley, Poland. Mieszko I, 966-992. Foundation for Medieval Genealogy, 2006. Cite #51: Dzięcioł, Witold (1963) The Origins of Poland (Veritas, London), p. 148. Accessed 17 March 2011.
  11. ^ Krystyna and Frank Van Dongen. "The royal castle in Kraków". http://www.pl-info.net/poland/major-cities/cracow/castle.html. Retrieved May 19, 2011. 
  12. ^ Stanisław Rosik and Przemysław Urbańczyk. "Poland - Ecclesiastical organization". http://christianization.hist.cam.ac.uk/regions/poland/poland-eccl-org.html. Retrieved May 19, 2011. 
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  16. ^ Hanseatic towns: Kraków, Polonia Online, Retrieved on 25 September 2007.
  17. ^ Davies, Norman (2005). God's Playground: A History of Poland. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0199253390. http://books.google.com/?id=b912JnKpYTkC&pg=PA118&dq=%22Norman+Davies%22+%22God%27s+Playground%22+%22Golden+Age%22. Retrieved 2008-01-21. p.118. See vol.1, chapter 5.
  18. ^ Michael J. Mikoś, Polish Renaissance Literature: An Anthology. Ed. Michael J. Mikoś. Columbus, Ohio/Bloomington, Indiana: Slavica Publishers. 1995. ISBN 978-0-89357-257-0 First chapters online, Retrieved on 25 September 2007
  19. ^ Cracow's Historic center, UNESCO report, retrieved on 4 October 2007
  20. ^ Old Synagogue in Krakow, Retrieved on 25 September 2007.
  21. ^ Harold B. Segel, Renaissance Culture in Poland: The Rise of Humanism, 1470–1543, Cornell University Press, 1989, ISBN 0801422868, Google Print, p.252
  22. ^ Norman Davies, God's Playground, vol.1, chapter 5. Books.google.com. 2005. ISBN 9780199253395. http://books.google.com/?id=b912JnKpYTkC&pg=PA118&dq=%22Golden+Age%22+author:%22norman+davies%22. Retrieved 2010-11-09. 
  23. ^ Wieslaw Wydra, "Die ersten in polnischer Sprache gedruckten Texte, 1475–1520", Gutenberg-Jahrbuch, Vol. 62 (1987), pp.88–94 (88)
  24. ^ "The Warsaw Voice", April 11, 1999. "Bell Woman of Wawel Hill". http://www.warsawvoice.pl/archiwum.phtml/9344/. Retrieved 2007-09-11. 
  25. ^ T. Sturge Moore, "Albert Durer"; and Janusz Wałek, "Painting in Poland - A brief summary". http://www.pilsudski.org/English/Gallery/Painting.htm. Retrieved 2007-09-11. 
  26. ^ Emil Kren and Daniel Marx, "Artists' biographies."Hans Süss von Kulmbach; J. Paul Getty Museum, "Artists: Hans von Kulmbach"; also, Agnieszka Janczyk, Kazimierz Kuczman, Joanna Winiewicz-Wolska, "Wawel Royal Castle, The National Art Collection (homepage)". http://www.wawel.krakow.pl/en/index.php?op=19,33. Retrieved 2007-09-11. 
  27. ^ Jagiellonian University Centre for European Studies, "A Very Short History of Kraków", see: "1596 administrative capital, the tiny village of Warsaw". http://www.ces.uj.edu.pl/european/krakow/krakow_history.htm. Retrieved 2007-05-12. 
  28. ^ Dorota Wasik, Cracow University of Economics, International Programs Office: "A short long history of Cracow", see: "The Polish struggle for freedom". http://www.louisiana.edu/Academic/Sciences/CMPS/Conferences/iticse99/Cracow/History.html. Retrieved 2007-05-12. 
  29. ^ (Polish) Grzegorz Reszka, based on: T. Cegielski, K. Zielińska: "Historia. Dzieje nowożytne", J. A. Gierowski: "Historia Polski 1764–1864", Lubicz-Pachoński: "Kościuszko na ziemi krakowskiej", A. Radziwiłł, W. Roszkowski: :Historia 1789–1871:, W. Malski: "Amerykańska wojna pułkownika Kościuszki". "Insurekcja kościuszkowska 1764–1798". http://www.polskiedzieje.pl/artykul,idart-139,t-Insurekcja-kosciuszkowska. Retrieved 2007-07-26. 
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Further reading

External links

Wikisource has the text of the 1921 Collier's Encyclopedia article Cracow.