Anosy
Anosy Region |
â Region â |
Location in Madagascar |
Country |
Madagascar |
Capital |
TĂŽlanaro |
Area[1] |
âą Total |
25,731 km2 (9,934.8 sq mi) |
Population (2004)[1] |
âą Total |
544,200 |
âą Density |
21.1/km2 (54.6/sq mi) |
Time zone |
EAT (UTC3) |
Anosy is a region in southeastern Madagascar. It borders Androy region in west, Atsimo-Andrefana in north-west, Ihorombe in north and Atsimo-Atsinanana in north-east. This region runs from approximately Manantenina in the northeast corner of the region, west to Ranomafana, west to the Mandrare river. The distance from Manantenina at the northern edge of Anosy to the Mandrare river at the south is almost 150 km. However, "anosy" means island or islands in Malagasy. Some argue anosy is named after the island in the Fanjahira (now named Efaho) river where the Zafiraminia first settled when they arrived in this region in the 16th century, while others argue it means "land of the islands" because of the large amount of water in this region. In particular during the rainy season, the Efaho valley floods, creating many temporary islands.
The capital is TĂŽlanaro and the population, which is primarily now described as the Antanosy, was estimated to be 544,200 in 2004. There are also Antandroy living in this region, especially in Tolagnaro and in the Amboasary-Sud district. Finally, there are Malagasy from other parts of the island who also live and work here.
The area of Anosy is 25,731 km2 (9,935 sq mi).[1]
The region is divided into three districts:
For an excellent source of information about the Anosy region see.[2]
Economic activities
[3][4][5]
Agriculture
[6][7] [8]
- Rosy Periwinkle â In 1958 Eli Lilly began research of Rosy ("Malagasy") Periwinkle, hoping to find it would help in the administration of insulin. While this was not the case, further research led to the discovery of its use in a cancer treatment drug found to be much more effective than existing ones. While Rosy Periwinkle by this time was growing in many tropical countries, it originated in southern Madagascar, along the coast south of Ranopiso (western Anosy) to the coast southwest of Beloha (western Androy). Insofar as the best source of Rosy Periwinkle was from Madagascar (where it was 4 times as effective as that grown in India), French companies soon developed planations in southern Madagascar. This new cancer treatment drug became a very profitable source of income for Eli Lilly, earning it hundreds of millions of dollars before their copyright expired in 1986.[9][10][11]
- Sisal â In 1928 the Societe Fonciere du Sud de Madagascar began testing the viability of growing sisal near Ranopiso. While about 1,000 hectares were planted, by 1935 exports were only 65 tons. In 1932 this company obtained a 4,000 hectare concession in the Mandrare river valley where sisal was found to flourish. By 1947 5 sisal companies had a total of 3,075 hectares planted and employed 1,470 people. Production grew from 2,500 tons in 1950 to almost 29,000 tons produced in 1964. By 1959 6 companies had expanded the area cultivated to 14,528 hectares and employed 4,502 people. Between 1953 and 1958, in part due to additional fees paid by France, these exports were worth 500 millions CFA. In 1962 there were 7,500 people (men and women) producing sisal and the value of sisal exports was just over 1 billion FMG (a year when 99 ships docked in Fort Dauphin) and while it was just over 2 billion FMG in 1964, by 1966 the value of exports was just under 1 billion FMG and the number of employees had dropped to 4,500 by 1967. By 1969 there were about 20,000 hectares planted producing about 25,000 tons/yr (half of which went to France) which was the limit established for Madagascar by the FAO. However, in 3 years in the mid-1960s, the value of sisal decreased by more than 50% due to synthetic fibers which took sisal's place. In spite of this, production was almost 25,000 tons as late as 1970.Current production is appx. 3,000 tons/yr from the Mandrare Valley.[12][13]
Fishing
[2][14][15][16]
Forestry
[17][18][19] [20]
Mining
Introduction â Mining has been occurring in Anosy for at least the last 100 years as Mica has been an export since the early 1900s, Uranothorianite was mined from the 1950s to the mid-1960s, for several years being Madagascar's second most valuable export. Sapphires briefly became a major export in the early- to mid-1990s and today Qit Mining Madagascar (QMM), which is 80% Rio Tinto and 20% Malagasy government) is exporting 750,000 tons/yr of Ilmenite, along with 40,000 tons/yr of Rutile and Zircon. There are also major deposits of bauxite and prospecting is ongoing for uranium as well as a variety of rare earth minerals.[28][29][30]
While quite a bit of mining has been done in Anosy over the last 60 years, a paraphrased translation of a 2002 post in Malagasy on the internet[31] shared skepticism of the benefits to Malagasy of the mining which has occurred in Anosy to date:
"- Is Manantenina, the town near the major Bauxite deposit in Anosy, progressing today?
â How many large stone houses are left in Ambatomika where Uranium was mined?
â How many schools were built in Sarisambo with funds from the Monazite mined there?
â What is left in Andranodambo where Sapphires were mined? Holes are the only souvenirs left here.
â What are the benefits left in the Tranomaro area where Mica was [and continues to be] mined?"
- Bauxite â There are an estimated 100 million tons of bauxite near Manantenina where it has been found over a 40km2 area. While this deposit has been studied for the last 45 years and in 2008 Rio Tinto indicated both a mine and refinery were "development projects," it is not yet being mined, due in large part due to the lack of infrastructure in this part of Madagascar (100 km north of Tolagnaro).[32][33][34][35]
- Ilmenite, Rutile & Zircon â Since 2009 750,000 tons/yr of Ilmenite is being exported by QMM to Canada, with a potential for this to grow to 2 million tons/yr. In addition 25,000 tons/yr of Zircon and 15,000 tons/yr of Rutile is being produced as part of their ilmenite mining. The estimated life of this mine is 40 years. Almost $1 billion was spent developing this mine, including a new harbor at Port Ehoala.[36]
per Book chapters, News reports, Research studies, etc.)[37][38][39][40][41][42][43][44][45][46][47][48][49][50]
per the Malagasy government[51]
per various NGOs[52][53][54][55][56][57][58][59][60][61][62][63][64][65]
per Rio Tinto/QMM & SODEXHO[66][67][68][69][70]
per the GIZ & World Bank[71][72][73][74]
- Mica â Discovered near Tranomaro in 1912 (though it can be found in crystalline schists from Fort Dauphin up to Ihosy), within 6 years 18 tons/yr of phlogopite mica was exported, with over 500 tons/yr by 1928. By 1947 there were 50 different companies mining mica, though the majority of the mining was done by just 10 of them. There were still 15 mines operating in 1962, with active exploration going on at 20 other sites. Mining companies included the Etablissements W. Boetschi, Les Fils de O. Jenny, the Societe des Minerals de la Grande Isle at Benato and th Union des Micas. However, in 1963 the US stopped purchasing mica, resulting in the closure of several mines and the production being cut by 2/3rds. The biggest mine was and still is at Ampandandrava, about 250 km from Tolagnaro, which currently is being mined by Groupe Akesson, exporting 1,000 tons/yr.[75][76][77]
- Monazite â Was mined from beach sands at and near Tolagnaro by Societe d'Exploitation des Monazites, which had a treatment plant which produced 200 tons/yr, though in 1964 the plant was moved to Vohibarika. The heavy-mineral sands near Tolagnaro still have an estimated 310,000 tons.
- Monzanite â Heavy-mineral sands near Tolagnaro have an estimated 177,000 tons, with another 64,000 tons with a high Thorium content located 100 km north of Tolagnaro.
- Rutile â A mineral composed primarily of titanium dioxide (TiO2), 15,000 tons/yr are being exported by QMM as a byproduct of it's Ilmenite mining in the region. [see Ilmenite above]
- Sapphires â The presence of Sapphires in Anosy was first written about by Etienne de Flacourt in 1658, they were most likely also seen by Barthelemy Hugon in 1808 and sapphire crystals were described by a French geologist working in the mica mines near Tranomaro in the 1950s. However, it wasn't until 1991 that very high quality blue sapphires of up to 35 carats (similar in quality to those from Kashmir) were purchased by gemologist John Darbellay near the Antandroy villages of Andranondambo and Marohoto (20 km from Tranomaro) in the Manambolo valley, just 80 km northwest of Tolagnaro (though it takes a 6-hour drive of almost 210 km to get there). Thai purchasers arrived in 1993 (soon joined by traders from Israel, Sri Lanka and several other countries) and by 1994 almost 10,000 miners had rushed to the area from all parts of Madagascar. However, while the initial finds of sapphires in this area were only 2 to 3 meters below ground in gravel which was under clay, since then most sapphires found are almost randomly embedded in a limestone or marble bedrock which take extensive work to obtain, using sledgehammers, spikes and small fires. Thus, the number of miners was only about 5,000 a year later and today Andranondambo only has about 1,000 residents, many who at least occasionally continue to search for sapphires, though they also farm, are vendors, etc. Foreigners visit only occasionally, as most middlemen are now Malagasy. Three different companies attempted to mine commercially, but only for a brief time. An Environmental Impact Study conducted in 2004 found the area "highly degraded" and the remaining dry spiny and gallery forest, threatened ecosystems, "fragmented."[78][79][80][81][82][83][84]
- Thorium & Uranium â By the end of World War II Madagascar was viewed by France as having a "treasure-trove" of minerals, so many several of France's nuclear experts told Charles de Gaulle he needed to keep Madagascar as a colony "regardless of political costs." Multiple deposits of Thorium and Uranium, principally in the form of Uranothorianite, were discovered near Tranomaro, in the loop of the Mandrare river, in 1946 (1953?) by a French Geological Survey, just 80 km northwest of Fort Dauphin, though getting there by road meant driving west almost to Amboasary and then northeast for a total distance from Tolanaro of about 200 kilometres. The local farmers, who raised cattle and goats, and grew rice, manioc and maize, knew of these deposits, calling these rocks "vatovy" to describe their density and black color. They used them as slingshot ammunition and fishing weights. In 1953 the French Commissariat de lâEnergie Atomique (CEA) established their center for mining at Ambatomika ("place of Mica rocks") and brought in mining equipment, built a mill, lab, offices, a small clinic, a store as well as housing and a clubhouse for the expats living there. What they milled was mined from small, open-pit mines, which had a minimum of overburden (for a picture of one of these mines see[85]) within a 20 km radius of this site. Some of these sites were mined by colonial concessionaires who sold their ore to the CEA. By 1958 there were 44 Europeans working with 440 Malagasy there (a limited number of mid-level Imerina with many more Antandroy and some Betsileo working as guards, porters and miners). Early, artisanal mining was not recorded, but from 1954 to 1963 almost 4,000 tonnes of highly radioactive uranothorianite was mined and exported to France. By 1962 these exports were worth CFAF 389 million and by 1964 this was Madagascar's second most valuable export. In 1963 the original Ambindandrakemba mine was exhausted so the site at Ambatomika was losed and all the equipment was moved north 40 km to Betioky, which is near te Belafa ore body which was thought to have somewhere between 2,000 and 5,000 tons of uranothorianite, embedded within 100,000 to 300,000 tons of ore. In addition to the CEA, there were 4 private mining companies in 1963 including C.F. Lanouo, Kotovelo (plant at Marovato), Societe des Minerals de la Grand Ile (mine at Ambatoaho, Societe d'Exploitation des Mines d'Andranondambo (mine at Bevalala) and the Societe Miniere et Forestiere at Betanimera. In 1963 these producers were being paid 2,850 to 5,000 CFAF/kg of uranium metal content and CFAF 100 to 350/kg of Thorium. However, due to the French having found much larger deposits in both Gabon and Niger, and the equipment and the mines were exhausted, this mining ended in 1968. While the higher-grade deposits were exhausted by this time, there is still a considerable amount of lower-grade material. In 2005, the Malagasy Government conducted aerial magnetic and radiometric surveys of the area, finding the amounts of Thorium and Uranium increased as one moves west, though this could be due to "transported cover" on the easter side of the area. In 2007 drilling by the Canadian firm, Pan African Mining Corporation, at one site found "high-grade uranium mineralisation grading 4329 ppm uraniumâ with deposits as far down as 60 metres below the surface. In 2009â10 LP HILL began ground traverses for Thorium and Uranium in the Marodambo area (in addition they have permits to search for Cordierite, Garnets and Sapphires). London-based Bekitoly Resources Ltd. is also involved in the strategic acquisition, exploration and development of uranium, rare earth deposits and other minerals in Madagascar. Their property occurs within includes 8 of the historical open-pit deposits. Their exploration activities have included airborne radiometrics and hyperspectral surveys, ground radiometrics and magnetics, mapping, grab sampling, trenching and drilling which have identified numerous widespread radiometric anomalies with uranium and thorium scintillometer readings of up to 26,257 and 43,215 ppm respectively as well as the rare earth elements of Cerium, Dysprosium, Erbium, Gadolinium, Lanthanum, Neodymium, Praseodymium, Samarium and Yttrium. Their data also suggests there are numerous additional areas "with good indications" that remain untested.[86][87][88][89][90][91][92]
- Zircon â 25,000 tons/yr of Zircon are being exported by QMM as a byproduct of its Ilmenite mining in this region [see Ilmenite above].
Tourism
Given its pleasant climate (average temperature of 200 in July to 270 Celsius in January), magnificint beaches, natural reserves (including several containing lemurs), variety of hotels and that it's only a one hour flight from Antananarivo, some have given Tolagnaro the title of "la cote d'Azur Malgache." Popular places to visit include Evatraha, Libanona beach, Lokaro, Manafiafy, Nahampoana and Vinanibe.[93][94]
Environment
[4][108][109][110]
Biodiversity, conservation, and ecology
Geography, geology, and hydrology
The information in this section is primarily from [120] and is primarily about the immediate Tolagnaro region. For additional information see[78][121][122] [123]
- Geography â The eastern and southern boundary of Anosy is the Indian Ocean. Along the ocean are coastal lagoons and then up to 50 or more km of sandy, rolling coastal hills that butt up against the Vohimena mountains. Rainfall is highest on the eastern side of the mountains and decreases as one moves west.
- Geology â The Vohimena mountains dominate the Tolagnaro region. They terminate just outside of Tolagnaro at Bezavona (Pic St. Louis) which is 529 m. Bedrock inland is granite. At Point Evatraha and near Mandena it is cordierite gneiss. There is an external barrier dune complex along the coast which runs north, up the entire east coast. Between northern Mandena north to Manafiafy (Saint Luce), there are heavy mineral deposits of ilmenite, zircon, rutile and monazite, with these mineralized sands averaging 18 m. thick in the Mandena region. There are also similar deposits at the south end of Petriky (west of Vinanibe).
- Hydrology â The 3 primary hydrologic drainage areas in Anosy are the Mountain Zone (30+% of the total catchment area), with steep slopes causing rapid, high runoff and clearly defined rivers; the Bedrock Plain which has rolling hills with low relief and several large rivers and the Coastal Sands, which can be found in bays ranging in size from more than 20 to only a few km2. These bays are clearly defined and are cut by meandering rivers. Along what are generally coastal dunes at ocean's edge are ribbon lakes from which water discharges into the ocean either through seepage or channels which cut through the dunes.
There are 3 major rivers in Anosy, the Mandrare along the southern border, the Efaho (formerly called the Fanjahira) just west of Tolagnaro and the Manampanihy which drains the Ranomafana valley, emptying into the ocean at Manantenina.[78]
Weather
The average temparture in Tolagnaro ranges from 26 degrees C in January and February to 20 degrees in July, with the temperature of the ocean ranging from 25 degrees in January and February to 19 degrees in June and July. The humidity of Tolagnaro ranges from 77to 84% all year long.
In general, Anosy's rainfall ranges from very wet and humid on the northeast to increasingly arid as one moves towards the southwest. In Tolagnaro the average rainfall is over 150mm/month for November through the rainiest month of April (which is almost 190mm) and then dips down to less than 100mm for the months of September and October. Tolagnaro is a windy town, with Force 6 winds from 6 to 13 days/month for 5 months of the year (including August through November) and Force 4 winds of 11 to 24 days/month for 11 months of the year.
[2][124][125] [126][127]
General background
[2][132][133]
Infrastructure
- Anosy Development Plans, Projects & Reporting
Integrated Growth Pole Project[134][135][136][137] LARO[3] PHBM[138][139] Other[140][141]
- NGOs & other International Organizations
â Presently working in Anosy[142][143][143][144][145][146][147][148][149][150][151][152][153][154][155][156][157][158][159][160][161][162]
â Recently worked in Anosy[163][164][165]
Education
As of 1997â98, literacy at the primary level was 22% for boys, 23% for girls. Literacy is less than 20% in some of Anosy's rural areas.
- K-12 â As of 1997â98, in terms of Public Schools, in the Tolagnaro area there are 109 Primary schools, with an average of 42 students per teacher. There are 5 CEGs and 1 Lycee. The Amboasary region has an additional 73 Primary schools, 4 CEGs, but no Lycees. In terms of private schools, the Tolagnaro region has 33 Primary schools, with an average of 50 students per teacher. There are 3 Secondary (1st cycle) and 3 Secondary (2nd cycle) schools. Amboasary has 30 Primary schools, but just 1 Secondary school (1st cycle). Unfortunately, some of the Primary Schools in rural Anosy are in such poor state of repair they've been closed, with the nearest operating school up to 20 km away. One of the organizations working to increase the number of schools in this area, with the support of external funding, is Azafady. For an explanation of a school they've built in the Mahatalaky area with the support of the Peretti Foundation, see.[176] For additional information and a very interesting collection of pictures about primary schools in the Anosy region, see.[177]
- Other[178][179][180]
Electrification
While Tolagnaro historically has had electricity for many years, the growth of the town and poor condition of the town's generators has meant QMM now has taken over the production of the town's electricity. The only other town in Anosy with electricity is Amboasary.
As of 2008, rural electrification in Anosy was only 7%. While a program entitled PEPSE Anosy was proposed to provide electricity from wind generators to 8 towns (Analapatsy, Ifarantsa, Ifotaka, Mahatalaky, Manantenina, Sampona, Soanierana & Tanandava), there is no evidence this project has been started (see[181] for further information).[182]
Healthcare
Maps
There are several different maps of the Anosy area, several of them available online courtesy of the University of Texas' (Austin) map collection.[193][194][195] In terms of Malagasy maps of Anosy for sale, FTM is the source to go to[196] including maps No. 12 Tolanaro (eastern coast north of Tolagnaro) and No. 11 Ampanihy (which is actually a map of southern Madagascar, from Tolagnaro across to Toliary). These are a part of their collection of 12 Maps of Madagascar. They also have a 1:1,000,000 of Southern Madagascar. In addition there is a recent map of Tolagnaro[197] as well as one of the Andohahela National Park.[198]
Finally, in terms of much older, European maps of the area which are online, for Fort Dauphin, created by Flacourt back in the mid-1600s, see.[199] For a map of the Anosy region created by Flacourt mid-1600s, see.[200] For a map of the coastline of eastern Madagascar (Mananjary south to Fort Dauphin), with detail about both the Fort Dauphin harbor as well as St. Luce (Manafiafy), see.[201] For Flacourt's map of the community at Tranovato see [202]
Population
While the people who have historically lived in Anosy are known as the Antanosy, they may be more accurately described as "those from Anosy" given Anosy's history. In addition there are many Antandroy living in Anosy, primarily Tolagnaro, along with Malagasy from the rest of the island, many of them now working for QMM's mining efforts. There are Asians who own many of the shops in town and there are also a few Europeans living in Tolagnaro working in the area(s) of Conservation, Mining, Tourism or for the Catholic church. While there were many French living and working in the Anosy region during the French occupation of Madagascar, most had left by the mid-1970s. Tolagnaro was also the center for work by American Lutherans, primarily in southern Madagascar, from the 1890s to the mid-1980s (see History of Anosy). Much more recently, there were over 700 Expatriates, primarily from South Africa, who worked on the construction of the new port and mining facilities.
Religions
The majority of those living in Anosy practice traditional Folk religion. The two largest Christian denominations in the Anosy region are the Roman Catholic and the Malagasy Lutheran churches. There is also a small Muslim community.
The Catholic church was established in what was then still Fort Dauphin in 1896. It currently has 5 parishes, with about 170 congregations and 16 Cures.[203][204][205]
Of the Protestants in Anosy, the vast majority of them Lutheran. There are approximately 20 Malagasy Lutheran pastors working with 134 churches in the Tolagnaro Synod, meaning each pastor works with between 3 and 12 churches.[206][207]
In addition to the Malagasy Lutheran Church, the Church of Jesus Christ in Madagascar (FJKM) has several congregations in the Anosy region.
Timeline of Anosy
The early history of Anosy at this point in time is based primarily on archeological digs in the Efaho valley, just west of Tolagnaro, though there has also been some work done just east and north of town. By far the best source regarding the history of Anosy (especially the Efaho valley) in the last 1,000 years is by Rakotoarisoa (1998).[208] Also see.[209] Other excellent sources for the early history of Anosy are by Wright et al.[210][211][212] as well as Dewar and Wright[213] who also describe the early history of several other parts of Madagascar. Also see [214][215]
Maliovola phase of the Efaho Valley (11thâ13th centuries)
11thâ13th centuries
- Earliest sites found by archeologists to date focused on fishing, others possibly on cattle. Gardening (mainly tubers) was done as well as hunting (including lemurs), but no rice cultivation. Iron working was also present.[7] Trade was limited to the northeast, along the coast, with no indication of imported pottery. Settlement sites were small (0.5ha in size), seasonal in some cases and even temporary, based on the need to move to obtain food. They were concentrated near the coast in dunal areas and were part of what was a very simple economic and social system. One of the sites is located on sand dunes overlooking the Efaho estuary (Rakotoarisoa, 1998).[208]
Ambinanibe phase of the Efaho Valley (and ZafiRaminia arrival) (14thâ15th centuries)
14th century
- China began trade with East Africa.
- In the Ambinanibe Phase, settlements hadn't changed much yet from the Mahivolo Phase, as they were still near the beach, were mostly les than 1 ha in size, with evidence of fishing, cattle raising and bowls imported from the Far East.
- Cultivation of sweet potatoes (bageda), iron working further developed. Signs of connections with broader Indian Ocean exchange networks with little evidence of settlement hierarchy or social differences and little change in population. Settlements were larger and primarily on the flood plains, with those near the coast on lagoons rather than the ocean itself (Rakotoarisoa, 1998).[208]
- Early 1300s â Wreck of a Gujarat ship off coast of Anosy.
- 1315 â Chu Ssu-pen of China created a nautical map which depicted the location of Madagascar together with its coastline, winds and ocean currents.
15th century
-- Arrival of the ZafiRaminia
- The ZafiRaminia, a migrant group of Antambahoaka from Mananjary, Fianarantsoa which claimed Arab ("Silamo") origins began moving into the Efaho valley due to the war which the Zafikazimambo was successfully waging on the Antambahoaka (only women and children were being spared). By the time they moved to Anosy they had already lived in the Mananjary region of Madagascar long enough to have become assimilated into the Malagasy population of that area, to the point that did not have mosques or any other Islamic institutions. They had, however, retained Arabic script ("sorabe") and had vague memories of the Qoran as well as several socio-religious practices. They also had both soothsayers ("ombiasa") and scribes ("katibo"), who had the ability to both write and interpret the "sorabe" which were venerated, an Islamic tradition. This was according to Racoube, grand ancestor of Anosy and prince of Mangalore, who had fled to Madagascar in fear of his older brother. This began the start of a time of cultural transformation of those living in the Efaho valley as they established a dynasty that went on for the next 200 years. [For more information on the Zafiraminia, see [216] and [217]
- Changes included the establishment of a much more hierarchical society. Previous to the arrival of the ZafiRaminia, the indigenous people, described as a social group which was "black," were divided hierarchically, with the Voajiry (royalty) over the Lahvohitra (aristocrats) over the Ontsoa (commoners) over the Andevo (slaves).
- On the other hand the ZafiRaminia, who moved into this area, coming from the northeast per Flacourt, were described as "white." They established a deeply stratified society at the top of which were the Raondriana, who claimed distant Arabian origins. Next came the Raondriana descendents, then commoners and then slaves. Their men of royalty intermarried with women of the local nobility and so took over the property rights of their wife's family. They formed the Raondriana (generally translated as "princes" in early European writings, these were royalty who were declared "Masters of the Earth" by the remaining Voajiry) who were over the Anakandriana (nobles) and the Onjatsy (commoners). Anosy was divided up into autonomous regions known as "Mahavita tena," with a king, known as the "Andriambahoaka." While were considered to be of a divine lineage, they couldn't ammend what were known as the "Basic Laws." Rather they were under the control of their subjects, asked to arbitrate when there were states of emergency (Rakotoarisoa, 1998).[208]
- 1403â1433 â Seven exploration and trade voyages led by Zheng He from China to East Africa, with fleets as big as several hundred ships. While there's no evidence they ever came near Anosy, porcelain from China was traded there.
Tranovato and Portuguese phases of the Efaho Valley (16th â early 17th centuries)
16th century
- Middle and upper Efaho valley settled where communities were still few though larger, many had moved further inland. The larger ones were "centers" which were from 2 to 7.5 ha in size and appear to have been fortified with both ditches and wooden palisades.
- Evidence of imported porcelains from Far East as well as stone and earthenwares and glass bottles from Europe.
- Over time the primary center of the Zafiraminy moved from Efangitse inland to Fanjahirambe, a village of 7.5 ha.
- Population became stratified, with settlement and socioeconomic hierarchy and rise of "Paramount Chiefdoms" as well as subchiefs, and shifting coalitions.
- Time of military campaigns as the Zafiraminia (newly arrived) seized power and implemented strict socio-hierarchical system associated with royalty and the ancestors.
- Rice and cattle were the primary sources of food. Long-distance trade with ceramics imported from China, England, France and Portugal, while cattle were exported (Rakotoarisoa, 1998).[208]
- 1500 â Diego Diaz, captain of a Portuguese ship which was part of a fleet of 13 ships commanded by Pedro Alvarez Cabral, sailing from Lisbon to the East Indies, became separated from the fleet on May 23 west of the Cape of Good Hope (South Africa) and was blown west and south. In sailing back north to rejoin his fleet, on August 10 he and his crew become the first Europeans to see Madagascar, somewhere near what was to become Fort Dauphin in Anosy. Diaz named the island Sao Lourenco (Saint-Laurent in French) in honor of the Feast of Sao Lourenco held on that day. Madagascar was called this on European maps for the next several hundred years.
- 1506 â Fernand Soares, a Portuguese explorer sailing back to Portugal from India, sailed past what was to become Fort Dauphin (now Tolagnaro) harbor on February 18, and while his ship was hit by lightening, didn't anchor there.
- 1507 â Five shipwrecks along Madagascar's southern coast since 1504.
-- Portugal's brief presence in Anosy (1508â1617)
[Much of the information about this period is from Larson (2007)[218] which is a much more in depth analysis of this time. Also see Pearson (1997)[219] and Canitrot (1921).[220]
- 1508 â On August 4, Diego Lopes de Sequeira and Duarte de Lemos of Portugal, sent to analyze the trade potential of Madagascar (looking for both gold and silver), dropped anchor in Ranofotsy bay where they found 2 crew from the ship Santa Maria de Luz, companions of Jean Gomes d'Abreau. They also met the only 2 survivors of a Ghujarati shipwreck which had happened 30 years earlier. He proceeded on to a bay he was told was named "Touroubaya," named after a captain of a shipwrecked Gudjerati ship who'd settled there (Pearson, 2007). Those living there said they were the descendents of shipwrecked sailors. Antonio, another Portuguese "mousses" and companion of de Gomes d'Abreu who was living there, knew Malagasy, so he became the translator for Captain de Sequeira when he met with King Andriamony (also named "Diamom" by some), one of the Raondriana in this area. Thus began 500 years and counting of very complex Malagasy-Vazaha ("foreigner") interactions in this area.
- Diego Lopes took on lots of food and left with another ship captained by Jeronimo Teixera which had just arrived there as well. However, on August 12 they were separated by a storm, with Captain Lopez ending up at a small peninsula which provided an anchorage well protected by the wind. Here they found cattle, wild boar, yams and rice provided by the local Malagasy, who were very friendly. This site also became known as Taolanara.
- As seen above, by this time Anosy had become a place for European sailors shipwrecked along Madagascar's southern coast to go to until the next European ship dropped anchor in one of its bays and could rescue them.
- 1510 â A Portuguese named Juan Serano attempted to set up a trading post in Anosy, location unknown (possibly at the "Tranovato"?). A Catholic source[221] indicates this was actually in 1540 and the group of "emigrants" included one or more "religious who...accompanied the colony of emigrants."
- 1527 â Four shipwrecks along Madagascar's southern coast. Pearson (1997) wrote the surviving 70 of 600 Portuguese sailors shipwrecked along the southern coast of Androy (southwest of Tolagnaro), arrived in Anosy, they worked with other shipwrecked Portuguese already there to construct a stone fort, held together by lime, on a seasonal island (which the Portuguese name Ilha de Santa Cruz) on/in the Fanjahira river, which became known as "Tranovato" (House of stone).[219] It was located about 9 km west of what a century later would become Fort Dauphin. Clarinot (1927) wrote that Father Mariano indicated that Francois Albuquerque built the fort when he was shipwrecked in 1505. Pearson (1997), along with many other sources, including early Portuguese historians of this era, indicated the Tranovato was built by shipwrecked Portuguese, anxious for their safety. Clarinot (1927) indicates that based on a variety of data, the Tranovato must have been built between 1520 and 1530.
- However, Larson (2007) argued the building is older than that, most likely built as stone structures that were not originally a fort, constructed by Zafiraminia Raondriana when they first arrived in Anosy. This still is as was originally described by Father Mariana in 1613, a 10m square blockhouse made of stone that was 3.5m high with 1m thick walls. It has doors on the western and eastern walls along with a series of rectangular apertures in each of the walls. In 1613 it had a carved sign which said "REX PORTUGALENSIS" and the tomb of a shipwrecked captain who'd died there. There were also several wooden houses outside the fort. It was built on a terraced hill (Pearson, 1997). For a 1656 map of the community at Tranovato created by Flacourt, see.[202]
- 1529 â French sailor, navigator, cartographer and poet Jean Parmentier described the ocean off eastern Madagascar as "La Mere Sans Raison" ("The Ocean Without Reason").
- While some of the Antanosy who shared about the departure of the Portuguese from Anosy indicated they had not met a violent end, some even leaving on their own (see 1613 below), others indicated some of the Raondriana had in fact killed these foreignersâPearson (1997) wrote this happened in 1531). On the other hand Larson (2007) argued the story most often told about a massacre at this time which was led by Zafiraminia princes who attacked the Portuguese during a celebration they were having outside the protection of their fort,[219] killing 70, leaving just the 5 on guard duty in the Tranovato alive (along with a Frenchman who'd been shipwrecked and was awaiting rescue), appears to have been first told by Jesuit missionaries almost 100 years later, frustrated with the king of Fanjahira (who they blamed for this), as he was unwilling to give a second son to them to take to Goa, India for a Catholic education. In either case, Portugal's minimal attempt at setting up a colony ended after the Portuguese either left on their own or were mostly killed, the few survivors rescued.
- 1530 â Several Portuguese ships commanded by two brothers, Duarte and Diogo da Fonseca sent to Madagascar by Portugal's king to search for shipwrecked sailors, but only found one Frenchman and 4 Portuguese (from 3 different shipwrecks). There were rumors of other shipwrecked sailors who had moved inland to Antanosy villages, but these were never proven to be true as a search of the interior was never conducted. However, in 1613 Portuguese visiting (see below) were told by an Antanosy about Portuguese his ancestors had welcomed, teaching them local skills. They had intermararied with local women and had many children. However, they eventually built a ship on which they sent sail to Africa, never to return, even though they had told their wives and children they would come back to get them, bringing good for the locals. According to some Dutch sailors, they had all perished.
- 1531 â The 6 survivors at Tranovato were picked up by a passing ship (Pearson, 1997).
- 1534â38 â 5 shipwrecks along Madagascar's southern coast.
- 1547 â Jean Fonteneau described Anosy as follows: "The people there are negroes and valiant: but they are wicked and do not wish to trade merchandise with any strangers. The Portuguese king had there formerly a factory [at Ranofotsy], where ginger was extracted; but the natives killed them and no longer wished to trade with the Portuguese...The island's coast is very dangerous, especially the south coast and part of the southeast. Shoals run for more than 30 leagues" (as cited in Pearson, 1997).
- 1550 â Portuguese shipwreck off the coast of Vinanibe (just south of Tranovato), by which time few if any Portuguese were still living in Anosy. By this time the Malagasy living in this area had been labled as "meschans" by the French.
Ehoala and initial French phases of the Efaho Valley (17th century)
17th century
- Ehoala phase of Anosy with focus on irrigated rice, but manioc had also been introduced. Settlements were smaller and located primarily in upper valleys away from coast. Cattle and slaves continued to be exported. By the time of the arrival of French in Anosy, warfare in the region had been happening for so long it was endemic. This was in part because of the multiple chiefdoms and even mini-kingdoms in this area. Most villages were found up to a day's walk from the oceanâpossibly a defensive response to the growing number of vazaha (foreigners) anchoring in their bays. The various Raondriana ("princes") power was a function of their alliances with ombiasy (traditional diviner-healers) and scribes (using a form of Arabic script to write Malagasy), as well as how many soldiers they had available for battles with other Raondriana (Rakotoarisoa, 1998).[208]
- 1600 â A Dutch ship of 800 tons, armed with 50 cannons, returning to Holland from Java with a very valuable cargo of spices, was shipwrecked somewhere near Sainte-Luce (Manafiafy).
- 1613 â According to Larson (2007), a Portuguese ship from Goa, India, which was doing a hydrographical survey of Madagascar's coasts (for an early map indicating this information for both Tolagnaro and the St. Luce (Manafiafy) bays, see.[201] They were also seeking to obtain treaties with Malagasy kings they met while doing this, anchored in Ranofotsy bay, near the town of Italy. Soon after arriving, they were met by King Bruto Chambanga (also called Andriantsiambany), the ruler of that part of Anosy, who lived in Fanjahira. He brought with him 500 armed warriors, as he was concerned these foreigners had come to exact revenge for the Portuguese (rumored? to have been) killed some 80 years earlier. He was relieved when Captain da Costa instead worked on negotiating a treaty of friendship, drafted by Chambanga, which was signed in Chambanga's town of Fanjahira, though was never seen again. While Chambanga gave Father Freire a small booklet of "prayers, litanies and psalms," written by shipwrecked Portuguese in the previous century, some in Latin, others in Portuguese. Soon the local Malagasy were happily trading "rice, yams, beans, lemons, ginger, cattle, sheep, goats, eggs, poultry, cotton cloth and silver bracelets for minted piastres and glass beads," and for several weeks over 2,000 Antanosy came each day to trade or just look at the ship at anchor in the bay.
- This ship was also scouting for new Catholic mission sites (Goa was an ecclesiastical province of the Catholic church, responsible for missionary work in the Indian Ocean). With the aid of Malagasy interpreters aboard the ship, French and Italian Jesuit missionaries from Goa gave mass on the beach, where they observed some Malagasy wearing pewter crosses around their necks which they'd gotten from Portuguese, while several even had tattoos of crosses. They also found some Portuguese words were being used.
- After several weeks in Ranofotsy Bay, Italian Father Luigi Mariana with 3 Portuguese sailors and quite a few of their slaves, walked over to "Trano Vato" (near Vinanibe) where he wanted to establish a chapel and house that he and Father Freire could use as a base for their missionary efforts. They chose this site as they wanted to focus their efforts on King Chambanga and his people. After several weeks of work, having constructed both buildings, a 10m cross was also raised at Tranovato, with another one planted which overlooked Ranofotsy bay.
- While at Tranovato, Father Mariana asked Andriamanoro, Chief of a village on a neighboring island, who had originally built this stone house?
- As part of the treaty signed by the Portuguese and King Chambanga, the King had agreed to provide one of his sons to the Jesuits so they could take him back to Goa, where he would be taught Catholicism, as well as about about "the customs and grandeur" of the Portuguese. Unfortunately, within 6 weeks of the arrival of the Portuguese, what had begun so well deteriorated rapidly as Captain da Costa and the Jesuit priests became increasingly frustrated over King Chambanga's unwillingness to give them his son as he had agreed to in the treaty he'd signed. Chambanga did offer to provide them with a younger, more distant relative instead, but Captain felt this was an "affront" to Portuguese "honor and name" and ordered his crew to go get Chambanga's 12 year old son, Andriandramaka (Drian-Ramaka), and bring him aboard his ship, using force if necessary. It was at this point in time when the Jesuits started to blame King Chambanga for having killed at least a "third" of the Portuguese who had been shipwrecked in Anosy in the previous century. Chambanga's response was to deny he had killed any Europeans or that he'd agreed to send his son with the Portuguese. Captain de Costa then had his soldiers and sailors seize Drian-Ramaka when he showed up with his father at Ranofotsy bay and rowed him out to their ship. Chambanga first had his soldiers try to attack the ship, but when they were driven back by cannon and musket shots fired from the ship, he tried to ransom him, but the Portuguese refused this as well, shouting towards shore they'd return his son in several years, once he had completed his religious studies in Goa.
- 1614â15 â Drian-Ramaka spent 2 years of study at the newly renamed Jesuit Saint Paul's College, Goa (originally named the College of Santa Fe), the largest school in the Portuguese empire, established for what were then over 2,000 boys and young men of a wide variety of races and classes, though many, like Drian-Ramaka were of the highest social strata from the India subcontinent, the Indian Ocean and even several from East Africa, where, while they were trained to assist European clergy, had also been chosen as the Jesuits were hoping they'd also be significant leaders when they returned home. While he most likely at least began to learn to speak Portuguese as well as basic Catholicism on his 5 month voyage to Goa (via Mozambique). In Goa he was taught to read and write Portuguese by priests so he could enroll in the college. He was very intelligent, in a little less than two years learning how to read, write and sing in Portuguesem, as well as ride a horse (an animal he'd never seen in Anosy). He was also taught the Latin catechism and could even respond to basic questions in Latin. Eventually Drian-Ramaka was also baptized.
- 1616 â Prince Drian-Ramaka, having been renamed "Dom Andre de Souza" (Sahavandra?) by the Jesuits, returned to Anosy in April, together with 8 "white companions," 3 of them Jesuit missionaries whose task was to develop a mission at Tranovato by working in collaboration with "Dom Andre" and his Raondriana father. While his parents were very happy when they found out their son who had been forcibly taken from them two years earlier was not only alive and aboard a ship in Ranofotsy bay, when the Jesuits refused to let "Dom Andre" go to shore until his father provided two additional relatives as temporary hostages. King Chambanga was enraged over this and while he did eventually yield to this demand. These temporary hostages were chained up on the ship and then the Jesuits indicated they would take Drian-Ramaka back on board their ship as well unless his father provided them with another son (preferably 2), who would also be taken to Goa for studies. Chambanga refused to give up any of his sons to the Jesuits, including Drian-Ramaka. Furthermore, according to Larson (2007), he told the Jesuit missionaries "he felt the Portuguese had the custom of sending some missionaries first to lands they desired and following later to take possession" of them. This in turn enraged the Jesuits and ship's company, who plotted to mercilessly battle the king and his followers, only giving up on this plan when they realized in so doing they would not be able to do any missionary work in Anosy. Eventually the Jesuits worked out an agreement with Chambanga that in exchange for "just" taking one of what had been two temporary Antanosy hostages to Goa for education, they would be allowed to live and do their missionary work in Anosy. Two of the missionaries settled at Tranovato (for a 1656 map of this community drawn by Flacourt, see.[202]). However, when members of this new, Portuguese community identified the ombiasa as God's enemies, the ombiasa threatened to poison them. When they openly began searching for gold and silver in the Anosy area, they confirmed King Chambanga's fears that they were involved in much more than just sharing their religion with his people. Soon after this the Portuguese living at Tranovato became ill due to fevers and by the end of the year, very frustrated with how this vazaha endeavor was working out, Chambanga forbid his people to provide anything to the Portuguese in an attempt to starve them into leaving Anosy.
- 1617 â Having baptized only 1 person in the year they'd been there (the Jesuits blamed this on the Islamic aspects of Antanosy beliefs), one of the Jesuit priests having died, the others suffering from hunger and fever due to their enforced isolation from the local population, left Anosy. In the mean time Prince Drian-Ramaka became king at the death of his father. However, instead of embracing the Catholic faith he'd been taught, he took the name of Andriandramaka and continued to respect the local beliefs and customs of that areas folk religion.
- 1618 â Pitre, son of a Dutch captain, washed up on shore in Karembola (west of Androy). He lived with a local king for two years then was brought to Anosy by Dian Tsiambany where he was given a house, wife and slaves. In wasn't until 7 years after being shipwrecked (1625) that a Dutch ship anchored off the shore of Anosy and after Pitre negotiated a trade for the Antanosy he was living with (50 cattle, 50 baskets of rice, 50 fowls, honey, honey wine and edible roots for 100 pieces-of-eight, 6 bolts of cotton, Indian fabrics, porcelain and silk), he went home to Holland (Pearson, 1997).
- 1620 â The Goa-based Jesuits abandoned and never attempted to restart what had only been a very feeble and seriously flawed, 7 year missionary effort in Anosy (less than a year and a half of Jesuit priests living and working there). (For a different perspective on Catholic missionary work in Anosy during the 16th and 17th centuries, see [221].)
- 1625 â Final Zafindraminia migration into Anosy per Grandidier.
- 1640 â Of 500 Frenchmen shipwrecked in Karembola (Androy), 100 sailed off in a barque. Of the 400 left behind, only 2 manage to reach Anosy, the rest having died of illnesses, were killed or died of privation (Pearson, 1997).
- 1641 â Dutch shipwreck along coast of Androy.
-- Initial French attempt to set up a Colony in Anosy (1642â1674) [See Larson (2007)[222] and Pearson (1997) for where much of the information on this period came. For additional information see [223][224][225][226][227][228][229][230][231][232][233])
- Several different French Governors of Fort Dauphin, France's first colony in the Indian Ocean, sought to conquer Anosy, mounting multiple military campaigns through the south where they pillaged and then burned hundreds of villages, killed thousands of Malagasy, enslaved others and stole tens of thousands of cattle as they sought to wrest control of the area from the Zafiraminia. During this time the French colonialists living there also fought for several of the Anosy kings.
- An estimated 10,000 Antanosy lived near Fort Dauphin, with the total population of Anosy several times this number.
- For more information on work by the Roman Catholic Church in Anosy during the 16th and 17th centuries, see Roman Catholic Diocese of TĂŽlagnaro.
- 1642â43 â First French colonial settlement in Anosy established by Jacques de Pronis Foucquenbourg the French East India Company at Manafiafy, 40 km. northeast of Tolagnaro, with 8 shipwrecked Frenchmen and 70 colonists (for a map of the harbors of Manafiafy and what was soon to become Fort Dauphin, see.[201]) However, after 26 of the 40 settlers died within the first several months there (many most likely due to Malaria and/or Dysentary) and due to it being a hostile environment, the settlement was moved southwest to what became Fort Dauphin, which they built on the peninsula there. They began exporting ebony, hide and beeswax.[25] Initially they found the local Antanosy, ruled by Dian Ramaka (who had learned Portuguese and been baptized during 3 years studying at a Jesuit College in Goa), friendly, in part because many of the local inhabitants were descendents of shipwrecked sailors. In settling first in Manafiafy and then moving to Fort Dauphin, both these attempted French settlements were at the edge of the Zafiraminia's world.
- 1645?- Pronis, Fort Dauphin's commander, married Ramaka's niece, cementing trade relationships.
- 1646 â Mutiny when Ramaka's family made the colony's sotres their own and held Pronis captive for 6 months, only releasing him at the insistence of a passing Societe ship. Pronis seriously strained relationships with local Antanosy by killing a local roandria (prince)and enslaving 73 Malagasy he tricked into coming into the fort and then gave to the captain of the ship which had gotten him released.
- 1648 â Etienne de Flacourt arrived to become governor of Fort Dauphin, a post he held until 1655. One of his recommendations was the importance of mixed marriages in the colony's development. For a map of Anosy at this time created by Flacourt see.[200] For his map of Fort Dauphin, see.[199]
- First Lazarist missionaries, sent from France by St. Vincent de Paul, also arrived in Fort Dauphin. What they found was a Colony which was quite a few less in number than had originally arrived due to deaths from malaria, dysentery and warfare. As it was 5 years before the next Societe ship arrived and due to poor relationships with local inhabitants, Flacourt began to conduct cattle raids. As his troops were the only ones in Anosy armed with muskets, they also were requested to help settle local feuds.
- 1649 â 15 of Flacourt's troops fought for a Mahafaly king against one of his rivals, capturing 10,000 cattle and 500 slaves. Returning to Anosy with 600 cattle, they were ambushed by Ramaka and several other roandria. However, all but one soldier arrived safely back at the Fort (due to reinforcements which accompanied them back).
- mid-1600s â Rise of Zafiraminia rule of Efaho valley as they become key connection between French and the rest of Anosy.
- Extensive destruction of villages close to Fort Dauphin led by Flacourt. For a map of Fort Dauphin at this time, see [234] For a map of the Anosy region at this time, see [235]
- 1650 â While 77 people had been baptized, two missionaries had died, at least one from fever.
- While the European ships docking in the bays along their coast were heavily armed with cannons, muskets and pistols, the Antanosy only had a total of 9 flintlocks.
- 1651 â After Flacourt was able to drive off thousands of Antanosy, led by Ramaka, who attacked the fort, he killed Ramaka and burned down his village of Fanjahirambe, which was the center of the Zafiraminy. An archeological dig conducted in the early 1990s found European stonewares, earthenwares, glass bottles, Far Eastern green glaze and blue and white porcelain (Wright et al., 1993).
- 1653 â Flacourt reinscribed the marble stone the Portuguese had used to mark their captain's grave and brought it to Fort Dauphin. On the marble he reinscribed, "Oh newcomer, read our advice: it will be useful for you, yours and your life: beware of the locals. Farewell."
- 1654 â Two additional missionaries died on site as did three new ones enroute from France.
- 1655 â Flacourt returned to France for 5 years, but died enroute bak to Madagascar in 1660.
- 1656 â Champmargou, Flacourt's replacement, arrives at Fort Dauphin to find the French had executed two roandria, but the Fort was burnt and Pronis was dead. In response Champmargou leads a ruthless attempt to conquer the local Antanosy, which only left those living at the Fort more isolated.
- La Case (Le Rochelais Le Vacher), Champmargou's subordinate, having married the daughter of a roandriana and became a local ruler. After successfully fighting in wars against both the Mahafaly and the Karembola, he organized an army of Antanosy soldiers who saved Campmargou and his troops in a revenge attack they were trying to do because of the death of one of the Catholic priests who had insulted Dian Manana, a powerful local roandria.
- 1660s â While thousands of new colonists and troops arrive as part of the new Compagnie des Indes Orientales efforts to rebuilt Fort Dauphin, many in turn die from warfare and fever. However, the Compagnie's poor profits result to the Crown taking it over.
- 1663 â On Christmas Day, 4 adults and 15 children were baptized, but another missionary died soon thereafter.
- 1665â67 â By the time nine new missionaries, 4 lay brothers and 2 Recollet farmers arrived in Fort Dauphin, it had a chapel, monstary and library.
- 1668 â Fort described as having two "bastions" on the north side which commanded the harbor, was 50 feet long by 26 feet wide with a main door which overlooked s small meadow to the west while the other door looked east towards the sea.
- 1670 â 200 remaining colonists left at Fort Dauphin living in a war-torn, hostile part of Anosy.
- 1671 â Death of La Case. Both his daughter and widow married other Frenchmen within about a month. Admiral de la Haye told King Louis XIV he should abandon Fort Dauphin.
- Dubois, a visitor to Anosy described local graves as being covered with gold or silver arm rings, along with coral and cloth in preparation for the deceased's next life (as cited in Pearson, 1997).
- 1674 â Wreck of a ship in the Fort Dauphin harbor which was on its way to Bourbon (Reunion) with quite a few young French women aboard who convinced the governor they should marry his colonists instead of going on to Bourbon. The governor orders the colonists to do this and renounce their Malagasy wives. Feeling betrayed, these colonists' former Malagasy wives betrayed Fort Dauphin to local Malagasy fores who viewed this as a breaking of the colonists' alliances with them and killed over half (about 100) of the colonists while they were celebrating their marriages to the recently arrived French women.
- Fort Dauphin was evacuated and the fort and settlement closed (remaining stores burned and cannons spiked). They left behind about 4,000 French colleagues who had died there in the last 30 years, a bitter French perspective of this region and a colonial failure, as the Antanosy successfully forced them out for the next 100+ plus years. This became a source of French embarrassment for the next 200 years until France successfully took control of Madagascar.
- While only 2 of a total of 37 French Catholic missionaries sent to Fort Dauphin by that time were able to return to France, by the time they left there were hundreds of baptized Antanosy, a French-Antanosy dictionary and a Catechism in the Antanosy language left behind. However, Fort Dauphin as considered too dangerous a port to be used by the French for the next 60 years.
Hoala phase of the Efaho Valley (18thâ19th centuries)
18th century[236][237][238]
- Continued conflict as the Zafiraminia attempted to regain control, without success. Size and number of settlements decreased and moved further inland from the floodplains and rivers towards the mountains. New crops introduced and a great deal of imports from China. Towards the end of this phase the traditional clay cooking ware were replaced by imported pots made of iron (Rakotoarisoa, 1998).[208]
- 1707? â About 30 surviving members of the shipwrecked British ship Degrave, having been able to escape from Androy, leave on a Dutch ship.
- 1740s â Another unsuccessful attempt by French to settle Fort Dauphin. As trade through Fort Dauphin began to increase again, the primary exports were cattle hides, salt beef or live livestock exported to Mauritius. Slavery was not an important trade.
- 1768 â Frenchman Count Louis Laurent de Maudave, a friend of Voltaire, former soldier in India and Mauritius planter, attempted to rebuild Fort Dauphin, signing 30 treaties with local kings as he didn't want to gain land through conquest. By this point, at least some of the local Malagasy viewed the French as allies, who because they provided them with muskets and amunition, allowed them to gain wealth and power.
- [some write so it could be a supply base for the French colonies on the Mascarene Islands (RĂ©union, Mauritius and Rodrigues)].
- Between 1768 and 1769, French traders from Mauritius sold 10,000 guns, 50 tons of gunpowder, 120,000 lead shot bullets, 300,000 gunflints, 24,000 knives and 10,000 small mirrors. At this point in time a slave could be purchased in some parts of Madagascar for 2â3 muskets. It is quite possible that at least some of these guns were traded by Antanosy with the Tandroy for cattle which the Antanosy then traded with Europeans.
- 1769 â Prickly pear cactus from Mexico introduced to southern Madagascar, where ove the next 100 years it spread over 50,000 square miles of the arid south from the Mandrare river and west, providing fruit to eat, a source of water and improved ground cover and ground water.
- French Navy stopped this project in 1770 and Fort Dauphin was again abandoned by Maudave in 1771, who took Malagasy slaves with him back to his Mauritius plantation.
- About the time of their departure, the Zafiriminia kingdom also fell.
- 1798 â HMS Garland wrecked near Manafiafy.
19th century[239][240][241]
- 1811 â Jean Rene, son of a French settler of Fort Dauphin and an Antanosy mom, became Governor of Toamasina, first under British and then under the Imerina king Radama I's rule. He took a blood oath with Radama in 1817 and was a powerful ally, even against the Antanosy, until his death in 1826.
- 1819 â Albrand reopened Fort Dauphin in the name of King Louis the 18th of France, having negotiated with the Zafiraminia king Rabefania who reassured Albrand the past was forgotten and who was interested in French protection from the Imerina monarchy, led by king Radama I, who had declared "the ocean is the limit of our rice fields" and was seeking to conquer the whole of Madagascar. The Antanosy people were also seeking a way to respond to their increasingly despotic princes ("Rohandriana").
Imerina control of Fort Dauphin area (1825â1895)
(Rakotoarisoa, 1998).[242][243]
- 1825 â Anosy, including Fort Dauphin, conquered by 3,000 Imerina soldiers, led by Ramananolona, cousin of King Radama I, after a battle at Masihanaka, near Eboboka. The Imerina entered the French fort, subdued De Grasse, the French Commandant, replaced the French flag with that of the Imerina kingdom and Ramananolona was suddenly head the commercial establishment at Fort Dauphin (the French fled to an island off of Manafiafy, from which they were picked up and sailed to Bourbon). Having confiscated the Antanosy guns, the Imerina demanded cattle, taxes, slaves and forced labor (adults were forced to create and farm rice fields while children were required to protect rice crop from birds and sugar cane from rats). From this point on there was Antanosy resistance by Rabefania's soldiers, which was brutally suppressed by Rafito, who commanded the Imerina troops. This resistance continued till the French conquered the Imerina, meaning most of Anosy was not controlled by the Imerina kingdom, but rather only Fort Dauphin, its neighboring town of Andrahomana and Manafiafy, where they collected duty on exports and imports.
- 1827 â Jean Laborde's ship runs aground north of Fort Dauphin during a cyclone. He makes it ashore and is captured by Antanosy, at the same time becoming, per Queen Ranavalona I's royal decree, a royal slave. He made his way north and ended up significantly impacting the Imerina kingdom of that time.
- 1845 â First wave of 30,000 Antanosy moved west, eventually to the Onilahy River valley near Betioky and Bezaha to escape Imerina rule.
- 1850 â Unsuccessful Imerina attempt to invade Androy by means of a coastal attack near Faux Cap ends with a retreat to Fort Dauphin.
- mid-1850s â Leather craft skills introduced by artisan missionaries of the London Missionary Society in the highlands spread to Anosy when those Imerina skilled in this area fled Imerina "fanompoana" (forced labor). At this time some Antanosy also become part of the specialized porterage system of the Imerina kingdom, returning to Anosy with their earnings after completing their contracts.
- 1852 â Six month siege of Fort Dauphin by the Antanosy which was finally broken by Imerina reinforcements sent by Lambert who broke through to the town. In response to unceasing repression and atrocities by the Imerina, an estimated 80,000 Antanosy, led by king Zaomanery, first moved to Androy (which the Imerina hadn't been able to conquer), but faced with thefts of cattle, wives and children by the Antandroy, eventually moved further west to join the previous Antanosy in the Onilahy river valley. Unfortunately, these Antanosy were faced with raid of their livestock by the Bara and Mahafaly people of that area. They felt further threatened when the Imerina were able to conquer Toliary. They also struggled regarding ethnicity, resulting in separate leaders for the Zafitomany versus the Zafiramania peoples.
- 1869 â Ranavalona II, Queen of the Imerina, became a Christian, requiring her representatives around the country to build churches. Some time after this a church was built in Fort Dauphin by the Imerina living there, who eventually made attendance mandatory for those living in Fort Dauphin.
- 1872 â Marchal, a Mauritian settler, established a combination botanical garden and experimental cash crop plantation which he named the Jardin de Nahampoana, just north of Fort Dauphin.
- 1880 â Two Malagasy Christian evangelists were sent by the London Mission Society to Anosy and began to work with the church there, eventually taking over leadership of it.
- 1883 â Beginning of war against the Imerina kingdom in the Antananarivo region.
- 1884 â king Tsiamanana, who had replaced king Zaomanery, as head of some of the Antanosy living in the Onilahy river valley, refused to submit to the Imerina general Rainimavo.
- year? â French Bocard brothers established a coffee and rubber plantation at Manantantely.
- 1887 â Imerina lose control of Antananarivo, resulting in the Antanosy no longer respecting their rule
- 1888 â Having spent over 6 weeks walking down from Antananarivo, American Rev. John and Lena Hogstad arrived in Fort Dauphin, accompanied by the Rev. Nilsen-Lund of the Norwegian Missionary Society, for whom Hogstads worked, who helped them with their journey and to settle there. Rev. Hogstad and his wife began work on establishing a Lutheran church in Anosy, work which eventually expanded to encompass all of Anosy, Androy and the Mahafaly regions, with significant numbers of American Lutheran pastors, evangelists, educators and medical staff working in southern Madagascar for the next 100 years. However, having been sent with the blessing of the Queen of Imerina, they were asked to start working with an existing Imerina congregation located just outside the Fort in the midst of where the Imerina lived. While they were supported by the Imerina Governor in these efforts, this support meant they were viewed as collaborators with the hated Imerina by the Antanosy.[27][244][245]
- 1889 â First 7 Antanosy youth baptized by Rev. Hogstad. Shortly thereafter the Hogstads began a Lutheran school especially for Antanosy youth, purchasing the liberation of Rabenjamina, a young local slave who'd been taught how to read and write in Antananarivo, who became the first teacher. Before long Hogstad had also started an evangelist training school, though 8 of the 10 first students were either Betsileo or Imerina.
- 1890 â French explorer Louis Catat described Fort Dauphin as follows: "On the peninsula that made up Fort Dauphin, there rose the fort and the French citadel: it covered an area measuring about a square kilometer and was situated on the flat part of the peninsula that sat on top of the cliffs... Landing there was absolutely impossible because of the high cliffs and on the ground the only place that natives migh access had been protected by digging moats, raising walls and forming artillery posts in the shape of a circle, all of which made for a first class defense system. Thus for the natives the military post at Fort Dauphin was an impenetrable citadel... But all of that was abandoned and ... no one seems in a real hurry to redress this unfortunate event. With each step, behind almost every hut, one finds some heartbreaking memory of our former domination. To the north, outside of the former borders (of the Fort) rose the village of Fort Dauphin, an important settlement which counts about 200 huts."[246]
- 1891 â Wild rubber discovered in western Anosy and within one year 1680 tons were exported.
- 1892 â London Mission Society ended their work in southern Madagascar, having handed over leadership of the Fort Dauphin congregation to Rev. Hogstad.
- 1894? â Tandroy drove Europeans out of two small coastal trading-stations (Andrahombe, 20 km southwest of Fort Dauphin and Antanambazaha, at the mouth of the Mandrare), stealing their stores. These sites were probably trading for rubber and a lichen from which red or violet dye could be obtained, but neither was ever reestablished by Europeans after this.
- 1894 â John Waller, an African American who'd just retired as the American Consul in Tamatave, was given 225 square miles of land near Fort Dauphin for a rubber plantation by the Imerina Prime Minister Rainalivarony. While he advertised for settlers to come to this site, he never actually visited it himself, having been arrested by the French when they took over Madagascar in 1895, eventually giving up his claim to this land.
- 1895 â Central and northern Madagascar conquered by France.
- Permanent Catholic Missions started in Fort Dauphin, led by Paulist priests and the Sisters of Charity.
French control of Anosy (1896â1960)
(Rakotoarisoa, 1998).[208]
- 1896 â French take control of Fort Dauphin, almost 350 years after they'd left in defeat from their first attempt to do this. First Resident was Capitaine Brulard who initially only had control of Fort Dauphin and Manambaro, with a great deal of insecurity in the rest of the region to the detriment of both Malagasy as well as foreign merchants seeking to export rubber. The French set up outposts in Manantenina, Tsivory and Manambondro, but had to abandon both Tsivory and Manambondro when they were attacked.
- Fort Dauphin Resident underwent a "atihena" (blood brotherhood) ceremony with King Malay of Manambaro and his two brothers, Simanihsa and Zahalo.
- Apostolic Vicariate of Madagascar established Apostolic Vicariate of Southern Madagascar. St. Vincent de Paul Catholic parish established in Fort Dauphin (see Roman Catholic Diocese of TĂŽlagnaro for more information on the work of the Roman Catholic Church in Anosy.).
- Rubber exports dropped to only 168 tons as instead of being harvested, the plants were pulled out by their roots.
- Rev. Hogstad and his wife established a Lutheran Mission Station at Manantenina. In the next 10 years Lutheran Mission Stations were opened up in Manafiafy (1898), Tsivory (1900), Manambaro (1908) and Ranomafana (1909).
- 1897 â France established a Military Circle Annex which divided the region into 3 sections, Antandroy, Antatsimo & Antanosy as they sought to have better control of the area. This included establishing a military outpost in Ampikazo, 30 km west of Fort Dauphin, to assist merchants working on rubber exports, but this was attacked by the Tatsimo of that area who burned the village down. In retaliation the French captured Tatsimo King Rahosinta, sent him to Reunion where he became a laborer and fined the Tatsimo people 500 cattle, created a head tax and set up posts in both Elekelaka and Manambaro.
- France began to allot up to 2,000+ hectares concessions to large companies, all of them run by Europeans or Creoles. These eventually included about 30% of the most fertile land in Anosy.
- 1898 â Southern Madagascar (including Fort Dauphin area) conquered by France using General Lyautey's (General Gallieni's second in command) "tache de l'huile" method which he had successfully invented for us in Indochina, a counter-insurgency method still being used today (population is surrounded by military outposts). The French disrupted both the Imerina rule as well as that by Zafiraminia princes.
- 1898 â Head tax of 5 francs/man over 16 years old begun, in part to force Malagasy to grow more crops in order to pay taxes. Failure to pay meant either forced labor or imprisonment.
- Senagalese soldiers were sent down from Tananarive to stop Tatsimo raids of neighboring villages. They successfully fought the rebels and confiscated their cattle.
- 1899 â Sisal first mentioned as a possible cash crop.
20th century[247] Also see
- early-1900s â The Compagnie Agricole et Industrielle de Madagascar (CAIM) planted 500 hectares of Sisal on a 2,550 hectares concession they had received next to Lac Anony near Andranobory. The Tatsimo (see Antanosy) and those Antanosy living in the Tsivory area were soon in revolt of the French, to the point that the French captured the Tatsimo king Rahosinta who was deported to Reunion.
- 1900 â Having conquered Anosy, the French set up 16 posts in the region which they'd divided into 3 ethnic sectors. They invited French settlers to farm the fertile lands in the Isaka and Fanjahira valleys (as Flacourt had envisioned). Malagasy were subjected to taxation and forced labor which was used to build roads and establish plantations, greatly increasing the amount of arable land in Anosy.
- 1901 â French Lieutenant Colonel Lavoiseau forces Antanosy to unite under the leadership of just one person who was Fitory. Head tax increased from 5 to 20 francs/man over 16 years old. Failure to pay meant either forced labor or imprisonment. Roads were built from Fort Dauphin to the Mandrare river, Manambovo and Mahika in order to simplify the extraction of resources. Many Tatsimo moved to establish villages closer to these new highways.
- 1904 â Rebellion by Taisaka spread to Antanosy, led by king Befanatrika, against French rule in Esira, Isaka, Mahampoana, Manafiafy, Manambaro, Manantenina and Ranomafana results in many of the expatriates living in the Anosy region along with many Malagasy Christians retreating to the rundown fort in Fort Dauphin. This lasted for 5 months, eventually put down by French with aid from their Senagalese soldiers. The region also suffered from smallpox and locusts at this time.
- 1905 â Estimated 120,000 Antanosy. Small pox passes through Anosy.
- Jenny family collects latex along the Mandrare river, using barges to ship it to Fort Dauphin from where it was exported to Europe. Some of this was made into surgeon's gloves and some of the first Michelin tires. At this point 12 different rubber lianas were being collected for this.
- 1906 â Three areas of land in the fertile Efaho valley near Soanirana, Isaka and Ifarantsa, covering over 4,000 hectares had been created for colonial planations.
- The French, assuming Malagasy Lutherans had led the revolt, shut down all of the Lutheran schools and churches in Anosy. Schools were not reopened until missionaries from France came to reopen them.
- At about this same time Pierre de Bellier de Villentroy (Frenchman living on Reunion, an uncle of Alain and Henri de Heaulme) established a Mica mine near Tsivory, which he exported through Fort Dauphin to Europe.
- 1907 â Forced labor (prestations) introduced for all men over 16 years old. This was used to provide labor on colonial plantations, at mica mines, to build roads, schools and hospitals and to do reforestation. Men could be taken for 30 to 60 days of work.
- 1912 â First major drought of French colonial period.
- Lutheran Mission Station opened at Behara.
- 1913 â Major cyclone damages infrastructure which was followed by drought and then famine.
- Roman Catholic church's Apostolic Vacariate of Southern Madagascar becomes that of Fort-Dauphin.
- 1914 â Just over 25 years after the arrival of the first American Lutheran missionary there was a total of 16 missionaries working in Anosy (with 8 more arriving to join them by 1917), 2,741 baptized and 2,511 students in Lutheran schools. By 1930 another 27 American Lutheran missionaries had arrived to replace missionaries who had returned to the US, died in Madagascar and to help expand work in Androy.
- 1917 â Colonial government had Tatsimo near Ranopiso clear large areas in order to grow cow peas, castor oil beans and other legumes.
- 1919 â Major flu epidemic followed by drought in 1920.
- 1922 â Major cylcone severely damages road from Fort Dauphin to Behara.
- 192? â Marthe de Heaulme, about 25 years old, arrives in Fort Dauphin as a Catholic novitiate, becoming Sister Gabrielle of the Daughters of Charity, eventually founding and heading 3 different religious communities in southern Madagascar. Alain de Heaulme moves south to work on Pierre de Bellier de Villentroy's mica mine near Tsivory, where Alain became manager.
- 1924 â Cochineal beetle introduced into southern Madagascar by Perrier de la Bathie to destroy Malagasy cactus. In five years it spread across southern Madagascar, causing severe famine and loss of cattle in Androy, resulting in many Tandroy moving into Tatsimo lands.
- â Serious efforts began to turn over the leadership of the Lutheran church in Anosy to Malagasy leadership.
- 1925 â Leprosarium established by Catholics at Ampasy.
- 1926 â 179 Europeans were exploiting 2,170 hectares for various crops, for an average of 12 hectares/European while 88 Malagasy (many of them not from Anosy), were farming 528 hectares (25% that of Europeans), for an average of 6 hectares/Malagasy.
- 1927 â Head tax increased from 25 to 40 francs/man over 16 years old. Failure to pay meant either forced labor or imprisonment.
- 1928 â With the growing of sisal "outsourced" from Mexico to Africa, the Societe Fonciere du Sud de Madagascar plants a trial sisal plantation on part of the 2,000ha of land they had been given near Ranopiso, about 40 km west of Fort Dauphin.
- Henry de Heaulme, 29 years old, arrived in Fort Dauphin, having driven down from Tananarive in a Harley Davidson motorcycle with his wife and son in the side car. His intent was to export mica and sisal from Androy and western Anosy through Fort Dauphin. Henry soon gets involved in conservation efforts in the Mandrare river and elsewhere and later his son and daughter-in-law also get into the tourism business.
- 1930 â Another 27 more by 1930
- 1932 â The Societe Fonciere du Sud de Madagascar planted a 4,000 hectares of sisal in the Mandrare valley near Amboasary, about 75 km west of Fort Dauphin. [For information about sisal production in the Mandrare valley, see Guerin (1969?).] This same year the 11th natural reserve of Andohahela, starting with 30,000ha but growing to its current total of 76,000ha, was created by the French colonial government. It is located 40 to 80 km from Fort Dauphin.
- 1933 â Mica extraction in the Fort Dauphin district which employed 140 women and 30 men in extraction from Ampikazo, splitting in the towns of Ranopiso, Ankaramena and Soanirana and washing and weighing at Manantantely expanded to 5,000 women splitting 621 tons in 1938. However, by 1944 it was of little importance.
- â First year of what became a 5 year drought.
- â Ranopiso sisal plantation had grown to 1,000ha in size, stretching south almost to the coast, but only lasted from 1933 to 1938 due to soils and labor being inadequate for this, resulting in only 67 tons of sisal being harvested in 1935. It was shut down with all sisal efforts moved to the Mandrare valley.
- Construction of a dam to expand farming near Behara.
- 1936 â The first sisal plantation near Amboasary is established by Ătablissements Gallois. Henri de Heaulme established his sisal plantation and the Berenty forest reserve.
- 1940 â Vichy France takes over control of Madagascar. The de Guitaut family, based out of Fort Dauphin, starts local growing and production of tobacco as none can be imported.
- 1942 â Fort Dauphin invaded by British forces who replaced Vichy France's control with that of the Free French Forces. While Mica was mined in western Anosy continued to be exported from Fort Dauphin to both sides of conflict, sisal production fell due to a lack of imports.
- 1943 â Some Tandroy refugees from the famine in Androy fled to Fort Dauphin, though having nothing when they got there, some of them died there.
- 1945 â Expansion of irrigated farming near Behara results in quite a few people moving here to work.
- 1947 â Tsivory Catholic parish established.
- 1948 â Beginning of lobster production in Anosy.
- 1950sâ60s â Boetchi (Swiss), de Heaulme and Jenny families and the Lyonnaise and Marseillaise companies exported wild castor oil beans, cattle (10,000â30,000/year), mica and sisal.
- 1954 â Establishment of Manambaro Hospital, some 25 km west of Fort Dauphin, by Lutheran Mission.
- 1955 â Societe Fonciere du Sud de Madagascar (SFSM) developed 130 hectares of rice fields and planted 25,000 coffee trees on their remaining 260 hectares concession near Ifarantsa. They had earlier planted 2,175 hectares of coffee near Ranomafana, having abandoned 800 hectares of attempted sisal near Ranopiso as well as a 182 hectares coconut planation at Lokaro. That same year the Apostolic Vicariate of Fort-Dauphin becomes the Diocese of Fort Dauphin.
- Amboasary Catholic parish established.
- 1956 â 138,000 Antanosy.
- 1957 â Construction of the SIFOR sisal weaving factory just outside Fort Dauphin. This same year, 3 sawmills, owned by Jenny (at Bemangidy) and the Societe Sciere d'Ilandy (at Antsapa), along with another sawmill at Elandy were producing over 1,000 m3 of lumber/yr, much of it either precious or at least semi-precious wood.
- 1958 â Henri de Heaulme becomes President of the Provincial Assembly and Vice-President of the National Assembly, urging independence for Madagascar. He is present with Philibert Tsiranana and Monja Jaona at the signing of the new constitution for the Malagasy Republic.
- â Eli Lilly begins development of cancer treatment drugs from Rosy Periwinkle, a plant indigenous to Madagascar which grows along the coast of southern Madagascar beginning at Ranopiso (western Anosy) to Beloha (western Androy), but by then found in several different countries, from which they were able to develop cancer treatment drugs that earned the company hundreds of millions of dollars. While Eli Lilly bought Periwinkle from several countries and even grew it in Texas, the best quality was from southern Madagascar.
- 1959 â 148,132 Antanosy. In the Mandrare valley, 6 companies were growing sisal, each with 2,000+ hectares planted, employing a total of 4,500 Malagasy.
Anosy as part of the Republic of Madagascar (1960âpresent)
(Rakotoarisoa, 1998).[208] First Republic, led by President Philibert Tsiranana (1960â1972)
- 1960 â Madagascar became an independent nation.
- Second Catholic parish established in Tolagnaro.
- 1961 â SIFOR was producing 800 tonnes per year, half of which was exported to France and Reunion.
- 1963 â Between 1954 and 1963, 3,986 tons of highly radioactive Uranothorianite had been mined and exported to France.
- 1964 â Year of greatest sisal production from the Mandrare valley (almost 30,000 tonnes), having grown from just over 2,000 tonnes in 1950. France was the primary importer.
- 1965 â Population of Fort Dauphin is 11,800 and that of the Antanosy estimated to be 148,132.
- Manantenina Catholic parish established.
- 1966 â Beginning of export of seaweed to Japan.
- 1967 â Due to the growing popularity of synthetic fibers, the price for sisal had dropped 50% since 1964.
- 1972 â First "industrial" plantation of Periwinkle, located near Ranopiso, with others located in Androy, starts large-scale exportation to the US and Europe.
- 1973 â Decreasing quality and unreliable exports of Rosy Periwinkle has Eli Lilly reducing purchases of it as they tried to grow it in Texas.
- Trano Vato site excavated by the Malagasy Musee d'Art et d'Archeologie.
- 1974 â Beginning of the export of live lobsters from Anosy to Europe which was made possible in part due to beginning of 737 service between Fort Dauphin and Tananarive which connected with a flight to Europe.
- Boom in exportation of Periwinkle, with 7 different firms involved.
Second Republic, led by Admiral Didier Ratsiraka (1975â1991)
- 1975 â Initial analysis of Ilmenite in Anosy conducted by US Steel which set up a very small pilot plant in Mandena. Cyclone Deborah damages much of Anosy, including Tolagnaro and Amboasary, knocking out electricity and water supply for several days.
- 1,200 tons of Periwinkle exported.
- 1978 â With worldwide demand for Periwinkle in decline, many of the companies involved in its exportation stopped doing this.
- late 1970s â Demand for Periwinkle becomes so great that Eli Lilly again began purchasing it from large-scale plantations in Madagascar.
- 1980s â Anosy region becomes a high priority area for conservation efforts by international NGOs, resulting in the influx of a wide variety of foreign conservation experts (and some Malagasy), who began work in this area. SHTM created by de Heaulme which currently has 5 hotels in the Tolagnaro area plus the Berenty reserve.
- mid-1980s â Growth of Tolagnaro results in increased demand for charcoal for cooking, resulting in rapid deforestation of forests near Tolagnaro, Manantantely and the spiny forest east of Amboasary-Sud (this charcoal primarily produced by Antandroy).
- 1985 â World Wildlife Fund began working with the Andohahela reserve, conducting preliminary biological inventories, ICDP projects began in 1987 and USAID funding was obtained in 1990.
- 1986 â Henri and Jean de Heaulme family awarded the J. Paul Getty Award for Conservation Leadership for their conservation work in Madagascar. OMNIS and what became QIT Madagascar Minerals begin a 20+ year process which finally leads to mining of both ilmenite and ???. What was then known as QIT Fer et Titane establishes an office in Tolagnaro and begins work in the Anosy region.
- 1988 â Demand for Periwinkle increases to about 800 tons/year.
- 1989 â Diocese of Fort Dauphin becomes that of Tolagnaro.
- 1990s â Parts of Anosy and a reserve near Berenty (in eastern Androy) become major tourist destinations, causing rapid growth in the tourism industry in this area.
- 1990â97 â Andohahela national reserve project received over $4 million of funding.
Third Republic, led by Presidents Albert Zafy, Didier Ratsiraka and Marc Ravalomanana (1992â2009).
- 1992 â Initial exploitation of Sapphires found near Andranodambo, some 210 km from Tolagnaro (first seen by French in the mid-1600s, early 1800s and 1950s) in what was then a location where mica was mined.
- 1994 â Cyclone Daisy passes through. Azafady starts working in Anosy. Later that year Andrew Lees dies of heat exhaustion in the Petriky forest, just west of Tolagnaro, while researching the potential impacts of the mining of Ilmenite in the Anosy region. The next year the Andrew Lees Trust was established, with an office set up at Libanona (just outside of Tolagnaro), to develop and implement social and environmental education projects across southern Madagascar.
- 1995 â 300 tons of seaweed per year exported to Japan.
- 1996 â Anosy region is identified as one of the ecologically most diverse regions of Madagascar.
- 1997 â Cyclone Gretelle passes through.
- 1998 â 20,500 passengers disembark at Tolagnaro airport.
- 1999 â 24,800 tourists visit Anosy.
21st century
- 2000 â Of the 15,000 tourists who visit Anosy, 7,000 of them visit Berenty.
- Cholera outbreak
- 2004 â Between 1988 and 2004, about 800 tons/year of Periwinkle are exported, employing over 7,000 people in both Anosy and Androy,with another 15,000 supported through kin networks. Due to the rising value of growing food in central Anosy, most Periwinkle production in this region occurs in in the southwest. Unfortunately, exporters receive 22 times what is paid the peasant producers.
- 2005 â World Food Program responds to malnutrition in Anosy caused by a combination of drought and flooding.
- 2006â08 â QMM created over 4,400 jobs, 61% local hires, 10% expatriate.
- 2007 â Over 500,000 people now living in Anosy. In addition, Malagasy from all over the island, Europeans, North Americans, Filipinos, French, Japanese and South Africans all living in Tolagnaro while working on the QMM projects, filling up all the hotels for the next two years, ruining most of the tourism business in Anosy.
- 2009 â Port d'Ehoala [248] is completed and QIT Madagascar Minerals begins to export Ilmenite through it to Canada for processing after over 30 years of exploration and studies and several years of construction of the port and mining facilities.
Fourth Republic led by Rajoelina (2010âpresent)
- 2011 â QMM begins to temporarily provide electricity to Tolagnaro.
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- ^ Navalona, R. (2010, 9 July). Developpement de Taolagnaro: QMM investit plus d'Ar 200 millions pour realiser le programme 'Fagneva' cette annee. Midi Madagasikara.
- ^ RANDRIANARISOA Tsiory Radoniaina. (2006). Le Syndrome Hollandais: Est-ce applicable pour l'economie Malgache. Universite d'Antananarivo. Sarrasin, Bruno. (2006). Economie politique du developpement minier a Madagascar: L' Analyse du projet QMM a Tolagnaro (Fort Dauphin). VertigO â La Revue Electronique en Sciences de l'Environnement, 7(2).
- ^ Sarrasin, Bruno (2007). Le projet minier de QIT Madagascar Mineral Ă Tolagnaro (Fort-Dauphin, Madagascar): Quels enjeux de dĂ©veloppement? Afrique Contemporaine (Paris), 1(221), 205â223.
- ^ Sarrasin, Bruno. (2009). Mining and protection of the environment in Madagascar. From Bonnie Campbell (Ed.). Chapter 4 of Mining in Africa: Regulation and Development, pp. 150â186. Pluto Press/IDRC. Also available at http://web.idrc.ca/en/ev-141153-201-1-DO_TOPIC.html
- ^ Seagle, Caroline. (2009). Biodiversity for whom? Local experiences and global strategies of land use and access near the Rio Tinto/QMM ilmenite mine in Fort Dauphin, SE Madagascar. Masters Thesis. VU University Amsterdam.
- ^ Government of Madagascar. (2007). Amendements au Plan de RĂ©installation pour la Mise en Oeuvre du Projet Ilmenite de QMM SA Ă Tolagnaro.
- ^ Andrew Lees Trust. (2008?). A scoping of impacts: Rio Tinto in Madagascar.
- ^ ALT. (n.d.). Project HEPA and the QMM Mine Anosy.
- ^ ALT. (n.d.). Policy Statement on the QMM MINE, Fort Dauphin, Southern Madagascar.
- ^ ALT & PANOS. (2009). Madagascar: Voices of ChangeâOral Testimony of the Antanosy People.
- ^ Harbinson, R. (2007). Development recast: A review of the impact of the Rio Tinto Ilmenite mine in southern Madagascar. Friends of the Earth.
- ^ Harbinson, Rod. (2007). A mine of information? Improving communication around the Rio Tinto ilmenite mine in Madagascar. London: Panos.
- ^ Hay Zara. (2010). Madagascar: Voices of Change (Andrew Lees Trust). United Nations Madagascar.
- ^ London Mining Network. (2010, April). Rio Tinto: A Shameful History of Human and Labour Rights Abuses And Environmental Degradation Around the Globe.
- ^ Nostromo Research. (2001). The case against QMM/Rio Tinto in Madagascar. Friends of the Earth.
- ^ Oxfam. (2009, April). Sodexo Madagascar: Creating linkages between local producers and the mining sector.
- ^ Porter, Gareth et al. (2001, October). Review of an Ilmenite Project in Southeast Madagascar. Conservation International.
- ^ PANOS London. (2009). Pushed to the edge.
- ^ UAE DEV. (2010, Sept). Voices from Madagascarâs Forests: Improving Representation and Rights of Malagasy Forest Peoples.
- ^ WWF. (2005). An Update on the QMM Mining Project in the Anosy Region, Southeastern Madagascar. WWF Review.
- ^ International Advisory Panel. (2011, August). Report of the International Advisory Panel. Rio Tinto. Preston Chiaro. (2008, Feb 5). Qit Minerals Madagascar. 2008. En Routes vers un DĂ©veloppement Durable: Rapport Annual 2007.
- ^ QMM. (2009, March). A mine at the rescue of the unique biodiversity of the littoral zone of Fort-Dauphin. QIT Madagascar Minerals SA Press kit.
- ^ Rio Tinto in AfricaâA long history and a strong future. Cape Town, SA: Mining Indaba.]
- ^ SODEXHO Madagascar. (2007). Our corporate responsibility.
- ^ Vincelette, Manon et al. (2008). The QMM/Rio Tinto project history in Tolagnaro and its social and environmental concepts.
- ^ GIZ. (2011). Development Partnership with the Private Sector: Mining Wealth at WorkâMaking local communities benefit from extractive industries.
- ^ Stanley, Michael & Harris, DeVerle. (2005?). Dynamic mineral resources management: Anosy Case Study. World Bank Oil, Gas, and Mining Policy Division.
- ^ World Bank. (2006). A Case Study in Dynamic Mineral Resources ManagementâAnosy Region, Madagascar.
- ^ Projet Poles Integres de Croissance. (2007, Juillet). Amendements au plan de reinstallation pour la mise en oeuvre du Projet Ilmenite de QMM s.a. a Tolagnaro.
- ^ Robequain, C. (1947). Le mica de Madagascar. Annales de GĂ©ographie, 56(301), 75â76.
- ^ Le Mica
- ^ Madagascar Matin. (2011, Aout). SOMIDA â Une production annuelle de 1 000 T de Mica.
- ^ a b c Hampel, Wolfgang. (n.d.). Stream sediment survey in South-Eastern Madagascar 2005â2006.
- ^ AllAboutGemstones.com (2008). Tranomaro & Andranondambo Gem Mines.
- ^ GGGems.com (2011). The story of the first Madagascar Sapphire.
- ^ G. Pocobelli & Co. (2010). Fine Gemstones Madagascar.
- ^ Tilghman, Laura et al. (2006). Artisinal Sapphire mining in Madagascar: Environmental and social impacts.
- ^ Tilghman, Laura et al. (2007, Nov). Artisanal Sapphire Mining in Madagascar: Environmental and Social Impacts. Also see http://www.uvm.edu/rsenr/gemecology/madagascar.html, http://www.africafiles.org/printableversion.asp?id=16980 and for photos see https://picasaweb.google.com/114110521766775704955/AndranodamboSapphireMiningInMadagascar#5165443619761757490 Andranodambo â Sapphire mining in Madagascar.
- ^ for views of this area from space see 24°26'11.39"S, 46°34'47.45"E & 24°24'21.60"S, 46°35'21.00"E
- ^ [2]
- ^ Arkenstone. (2010). Thorianite specimen from Maromby Commune (near Tranomaro)
- ^ Girschik, H.F. (2009, Oct.). Mining History and Geology of the [Uranium & Thorium Exploration] Project.
- ^ Hecht, Gabrielle (2002). Rupture-Talk in the Nuclear Age: Conjugating Colonial power in Africa. Social Studies of Science, 32(5/6), 691â727.
- ^ Hecht, Gabrielle. (2009). Ambatomika, Southern Madagascar, 1950sâ1960s (pp. 903â908). In Africa and the Nuclear World: Labor, Occupational Health, and the Transnational Production of Uranium. Comparative Studies in Society and History, 51(4), 896â926.
- ^ Vuna Group. (n.d.). Uranium and Rare Earth explorationâMadagascar.
- ^ Proposed acquisition of Tranomaro Mineral Development Corporation Ltd. by LP Hill Plc
- ^ Murdock, T.G. (1964). The Mineral industry of the Malagasy Republic.
- ^ Ranarijaona, Tiana H. (2003?). Etude dâimpact des infrastructures touristiques dans la region de Tolagnaro. MĂ©moire de fin de stage, Universite de Toamasina.
- ^ RAZAFINDRABE Andrianomenjanahary Manoela. (2007). Developpement economique axe sur le tourisme cas de l'Anosy, region a forte potentialite touristique. Maitrise. Universite d'Antananarivo.
- ^ a b OâConnor, Sheila, M. Pidgeon, & Z. Randria. (1981), Un programme de conservation pour la RĂ©serve dâAndohahela. In Oberle, Philippe (Ed.). Madagascar, un Sanctuaire de la Nature. Kintana: Paris.
- ^ Andohahela National Park
- ^ MadaCamp. (2009). Andohahela National Park.
- ^ Fort Dauphin Surf Forecast & Surf Reports (Includes info on 7 different sites in the Anosy area.)
- ^ Antanosy Surfing.
- ^ Kids Lenda Surfing School.
- ^ Authentic Madagascar Tours. Antanosy Region.
- ^ DiscoverMadagascar.com (n.d.). Places to see in Fort Dauphin and its Surroundings.
- ^ Lonely Planet. (2009). Fort Dauphin (Taolagnaro).
- ^ MadaCamp. (2009). Fort Dauphin.
- ^ Madagascar National Tourism Board. Taolagnaro or Fort Dauphin.
- ^ TravelMadagascar. Fort Dauphin.
- ^ WildMadagascar. (n.d.). Pictures of Fort Dauphin.
- ^ Ganzhorn, J. U., **S. M. Goodman, & M. Vincelette (eds.). 2007. Biodiversity, ecology and conservation of the littoral ecosystems in southeastern Madagascar, Tolagnaro (Fort Dauphin). Smithsonian Institution/ Monitoring and Assessment of Biodiversity Program Series #11. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.
- ^ Office Nationale d'Environnement. (2006). Profil Environnemental: Region Anosy.
- ^ Walker, Wendy M. (2001). Defending the environment, conserving social life, global visions and local values in Southern Madagascar. PhD dissertation. Johns Hopkins University.
- ^ Bucht, Karin R. (2011). Local Viewpoints on Conservation and Development at Malio, Andohahela National Park, Madagascar. A project submitted to Oregon State University University Honors College.
- ^ Fenn, M.D. (2003). Learning Conservation Strategies: A Case Study of the Parc National dâAndohahela. In Goodman, Steven M. & Jonathan P. Bernstead (Eds.). The Natural History of Madagascar. University of Chicago Press. pp 1494â1501.
- ^ Nagasaki, Mika S. (2005). Transmission of Environmental and Conservation Knowledge in Andohahela National Park. ISP Collection, Paper 485.
- ^ Simsik, M.J. (1996). Biodiversity Protection in Integrated Conservation and Development Projects: The Case of the Andohahela Reserve, Fort Dauphin, Madagascar. WWF International.
- ^ Travel2Madagascar. Andohahela National Park.
- ^ Ganzhorn et al. (Eds.). (2008). Biodiversity, ecology & conservation of littoral ecosystems in southeastern Madagascar, Tolagnaro (Fort Dauphin). Smithsonian Institution.
- ^ J. Moat & P. Smith. (2007). Vegetation map of the Tolagnaro region. From Atlas of the vegetation of Madagascar.
- ^ Kew et al. (). Madagascar Vegetation Mapping Project
- ^ CEPF Madagascar Vegetation Mapping project.
- ^ Vincelette, M. et al. (2008). The Tolagnaro (Fort Dauphin) region: A brief overview of the Geology, Hydrology & Climatology.
- ^ Peyrot, Bernard. (1974). Le pays Antanosy: Etude geographie regionale. Bordeaux, Univ. these. (Resume de la these de Doctorat de Troisieme cylce: L'Anosy central et littoral: Le pays Antanosy (sud-est de Madagascar).
- ^ Peyrot, Bernard. (1980, Juillet-Dec). La vie rurale en pays Antanosy-Madagascar. Madagascar Revue de Geo., 37(11), 1â138.
- ^ Verstraeten, I.M. & Mihalasky, F.I. (2006). Monograph on a Study of the Future Impact of Minerals, Hydrology, and Ecology on Integrated Regional Economic Development in the Anosy Region, Madagascar. U.S. Geological Survey Administrative Proprietary Report. Submitted to the Projet de Gouvernance des Ressources Minérales (PGRM), Madagascar and to the World Bank, Reston, Virginia, 551 p. (also published separately in French).
- ^ Ratsivalaka-Randriamanga S. (1985, Janvier-Juin). Recherches sur le climat de Tolagnaro (ex-Fort-Dauphin) (ExtrĂȘme Sud de Madagascar). Madagascar: Revue de GĂ©ographie, 46, 47 â 67.
- ^ Ratsivalaka-Randriamanga, Simone. (1989). Le climat de Fort Dauphin et son impact sur l'homme et la vegetation. These de Doctorat de IIIe cycle, Antananarivo: Dept de Geographie, L"Universite d'Antananarivo.
- ^ Vincelette, Manon et al. (2008). The Tolagnaro (Fort Dauphin) region: A brief overview of the Geology, Hydrology, and Climatology.
- ^ Fort-Dauphin.
- ^ Fort Dauphin (Tolagnaro) weather per AOL.weather.
- ^ Fort Dauphin (Tolagnaro) weather per Tribune.com
- ^ Fort Dauphin (Tolagnaro) weather per wunderground.com
- ^ NOAA. Weather map for the Southern hemisphere.
- ^ Panos London. (2009). Background to the [Anosy] region.
- ^ Mauro, Didier. (2003, DĂ©cembre). Une ile dans les mers: LâAnosy et le Sud-Est. Madagascar Magazine, 32, 62â66.
- ^ FAO. (2005). Creation d'un pole de developpement dans la region Anosy-Androy.
- ^ Pact, Inc. et al. (2004, Nov). Laro.
- ^ Integrated Growth Pole Project (funded by World Bank)
- ^ RAHARISON Lalaniaina. (2007). Partenariat public/prive cas du projet Pole Integre de Croissance et de la QMM SA a Tolagnaro. Universite d'Antananarivo.
- ^ Benoit Thierry et al. (2010). Nourishing the land, nourishing the people.
- ^ Projet des Hauts Basins versants de Mandrare (funded by World Bank)
- ^ Ministere de l'Interieur et de la Reforme Administrative. (2005). Region de l'Anosy: Programme Regional d'Investissement.
- ^ Talbot, Jennifer. (2008). USAID Alliance Anosy.
- ^ African Impact.
- ^ a b Andrew Lees Trust
- ^ Anosy Community Development Trust
- ^ ALT. (2009?). ALT Project HEPA.
- ^ ALT. (200?). Project HEPA: Oral Testimony 2007â2009
- ^ Action Santé Organisation Secours (ASOS)
- ^ Anosy Villages Integrated Action Project (AVIA). (See [3] for a video report of their work.)]
- ^ Asity Madagascar
- ^ Azafady (See [4] for a video report of their work. For an evaluation, see [5] Menard, N. L. (2008). Evolution and Evaluation of a Non-Governmental Organization in Southeastern Madagascar: A Case Study of Azafady. Master Thesis, University of Oregon.)]
- ^ CARE
- ^ CRS in Madagascar
- ^ FAFAFI
- ^ Global Health Ministries (also see AVIA)
- ^ Libanona Ecology Centre.
- ^ Nando Peretti Foundation's Project Sekoly
- ^ SALFA
- ^ SanteNet
- ^ SIT Study Abroad â Madagascar.
- ^ UNICEF
- ^ [ USAID]
- ^ WWF-Madagascar
- ^ Medair Madagascar
- ^ PACT Madagascar (see Projects LARO and MISONGA, both of them completed)
- ^ Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS)
- ^ (2006). Profils de pauvrete villageois et etude Regionale. Analyse selon lâApproche des Moyens dâExistence Durable. Rapport d'Analyse regionale Region Anosy.
- ^ Smith, R. (2000). Evaluation du Projet Radio, Madagascar. ALT: Londres & Madagascar
- ^ Lellelid, S. (2005). ALT Projet Radio: Le Statut des Stations Radios Associées du Sud de Madagascar ALT: Londres & Madagascar.
- ^ Metcalf, L. (2005). LâImpact de Projet Radio sur la RĂ©duction de la PauvretĂ© dans la RĂ©gion dâAndroy. ALT: Londres & Madagascar.
- ^ Metcalf, Harford, Myers (2007). La Contribution de la Radio aux Objectifs de Développement du Millénaire dans le Sud de Madagascar ALT: Londres & Madagascar.
- ^ Patrick O. Waeber & Yvonne Orengo. (2008, Dec). Radio broadcasting for sustainable development in southern Madagascar. Madagascar Conservation & Development, 3(1), 64â72.
- ^ UNDP & UNDEF. (2008). Communication pour lâEmpowerment Ă Madagascar: Une Ă©valuation des besoins en communication et mĂ©dia au niveau de la communautĂ©.]
- ^ The Communication Initiative Network. (2009). Voices of Change: Oral Testimony of the Antonosy People.
- ^ The Communication Initiative Network. (2011). Project HEPA: Communicating Indigenous Voices of Southern Madagascar.
- ^ Kraemer, Antonie L. (2010). Telling Us your Hopes: Ethnographic lessons from a communications for development project in Madagascar. Anthropology Matters, 12(2).
- ^ The Nando Peretti Foundation. (2009). Project Sekoly: Construction of a Primary School (by Azafady).
- ^ UNICEF. (n.d.). Schools for Madagascar: Close to home.
- ^ a b C-Change. (2009). Family Planning around Environmentally Sensitive Areas in Madagascar. Final Report.
- ^ Literacy of the Toliary Province.
- ^ a b C-Change. (website). Innovative Approaches to Social & Behavior Change. (includes Tools & Training Materials)
- ^ Fondation Energies Pour le Monde. (2008). PEPSE: Ălectrification de 8 communes rurales par Ă©nergies renouvelables dans la rĂ©gion ANOSY
- ^ MARGE. (2005). Development & update of a strategy to minimize the environmental impact of energy in the Anosy Region, Madagascar. (for USAID)
- ^ ONN/SNUT/PNSAN/UNICEF. (2007, Juillet). Ăvaluation Initiale et Finale de la Situation Nutritionnelle dans les Communes dĂ©clarĂ©es en DifficultĂ© Alimentaire. ENQUĂTES SMART. RĂ©gions dâAndroy, dâAnosy et du Sud-Ouest. Rapport prĂ©liminaire.
- ^ UNICEF. (2010). Children and women in crises.
- ^ Minton, Kathleen. (2008, Fall). Economics, Epidemics & Eradication: A Case Study of Malaria in Madagascar. ISP Collection, Paper 721. [while done in the Farafangana region which is north of Anosy, it is quite similar to the southeast part of Anosy)
- ^ Evelyn Dell. (2009). Women's nutritional & hygienic health knowledge in Madagascar: A qualitative health needs assessment of the Anosy region. MPH Thesis. Simon Fraser University. (also see: Evelyn M. Dell; S. L. Erikson; E. Andrianirina & Gabrielle Smith. (2011, 17 March). Women's knowledge in Madagascar: A health needs assessment study. Global Public Health: An International Journal for Research, Policy and Practice, pp. 1744â1706.)
- ^ USAID. (2005). Healthy people in a healthy environment: Impact of an Integrated Population, Health, and Environment Program in Madagascar.
- ^ Azafady. (2011). Project Salama â Rural Health & Sanitation.
- ^ Azafady. (2011). Evaluation of community-led, total sanitation...in Mahatalaky rural commune...
- ^ Linda Lyon & Sandra Martin. (2002). Is Traditional Culture a Tool for Medicinal Plant Conservation with the Antanosy of Madagascar? Or Malagasy Adventures. Women in Natural Resources, 23(2).
- ^ Lyon, Linda Michelle. (2003). Antanosy odyssey II: Application of the use and knowledge of non-domesticated medicinal plants on conservation among the people of Madagascar. PhD Thesis, Washington State University.
- ^ Lyon, Linda M. & Hardesty, Linda H. (2005). Traditional healing in the contemporary life of the Antanosy people of Madagascar. Ethnobotany Research & Applications, 3, 287â294.
- ^ US Army Map Service. (1956). Anosy
- ^ US Army Map Service. (1967). Fort Dauphin Western coastal Anosy
- ^ US Army Map Service. (1967). Manantenina Northeastern Anosy
- ^ Foiben-Taosarintanin' i Madagasikara (FTM). l'Institut Geographique et Hydrographique de Madagascar.
- ^ Office du Tourisme de Fort Dauphin. (2008). La carte touristique de l'Office du Tourisme.
- ^ Parcs Nationaux Madagascar (ANGAP). (2007). Parc National Andohahela.
- ^ a b Flacourt, S. de. (mid-1600s?). Map of Fort Dauphin.
- ^ a b 1650s Map of Anosy by Flacourt.
- ^ a b c Mengaud de la Hage. (1777?). Carte de la cote Orientale de Madagascar.
- ^ a b c Map of Trano Vato & surrounding area.
- ^ CongrĂ©gation de la Mission (Lazaristes) (Ed.). (1996). Le Christianisme dans le sud de Madagascar. MĂ©langes Ă l'occassion du centenaire de la reprise de l'Ă©vangĂ©lisation du sud de Madagascar par la congrĂ©gation de la Mission (Lazaristes) 1896â1996. Fianarantsoa: Editions Ambozontany. [history of Christianity in South Madagascar with chapter on history of American Lutheran missions in the South (1887â1950) by Dr. James B. Vigen, other chapters regarding history of different Catholic congregations and âBilan du Christianisme dans le Sud de Madagascarâ by Mgr Rakotondravahatra, Jean-Guy which describes current context, state and challenges of Christianity in South Madagascar.]
- ^ Galibert, Nivoelisoa. (2007). Ă lâangle de la Grande Maison. Les Lazaristes de Madagascar: Correspondance avec Vincent de Paul (1648â1661), textes Ă©tablis, introduits et annotĂ©s par Paris. Presses de lâUniversitĂ© Paris-Sorbonne.
- ^ n.a. (?). La fonction Missionnaire: Sur la Mission Lazariste Ă Fort-Dauphin (1648â1674) From AnthropologieEnLigne.com
- ^ Burgess, Andrew. (1932). Zanahary in south Madagascar. Minneapolis: Board of Foreign Missions.
- ^ Vigen, J.B. (1995). The First Norwegian-American Foreign Missionaries: John and Oline Hogstad. From Norwegian-American Studies, 34, see http://www.naha.stolaf.edu/
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Rakotoarlsoa, Jean-Aimé. (1998). Mille ans d'occupation humaine dans le sud-est de Madagascar Anosy, Une ßle au milieu des terres.
- ^ Rakotoarisoa, Jean-AimĂ©. (1994). Le peuplement de lâAnosy. Les rapports de lâhomme et son environment dans lâextreme sud-est de Madagascar, ThĂ©se de lâInstitut National des Langues et Civilisations Orientale, Paris.
- ^ Wright, H.T. & Rakotoarisoa, J.A. (1997). The context of the Flacourt settlement: The archaeological evidence of the Anosy region. Etude Ocean Indien, 23â24, 231â236.
- ^ Wright, H.T. & Rakotoarisoa, J.A. (2008). The archeological evidence of the Anosy Region.
- ^ Wright, H. et al. (1993). Evolution of settlement systems in the Efaho river valley, Anosy: A preliminary report on archaeological reconnaissances of 1983â1986. Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association Bulletin, 12, 2â20.
- ^ Dewar, R.E. & Wright, H.T. (1993). The culture history of Madagascar. Journal of World Prehistory, 7(4), 417â466.
- ^ Nilsson, A. (1999?). GIS Applications and Spatio-Temporal Change.
- ^ Uppsala Universitet. (2002). Madagascar Progress report from the field season of 1999.
- ^ Kent, R.K. (1969). The Anteimoro: A theocracy in southeastern Madagascar. Journal of African History, X(I), 45â65.
- ^ Lynda. (2010). ZafiRaminia.
- ^ Larson, Pier M. (2007). Colonies lost: God, hunger, and conflict in Anosy (Madagascar) to 1674. Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East, 27(2), 345â366.
- ^ a b c Pearson, Mike P. (1997). Close encounters of the worst kind: Malagasy resistance and colonial disasters in southern Madagascar. World Archaeology, 28(3), 393â417.
- ^ Canitrot. (1921). Les Portugais sur la cĂŽte orientale de Madagascar et en Anosy au XVIe siĂšcle (1500-1613-1617). Revue Francaise d'Histoire d'Outre Mer, 04-06, 203â238.
- ^ a b Camboué, P. (1910). Madagascar. In The Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton.
- ^ Larson, Pier M. (2007). Colonies lost: God, hunger, and conflict in Anosy (Madagascar) to 1674. Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East, 27(2), 345â366.
- ^ Allibert, C. (ed.) 1997. Autour d'Etienne de Flacourt (Actes du Colloque d'Orléans). Etudes Océan Indien, 23/24.
- ^ Flacourt, E. de. (1661). Histoire de la Grande Isle Madagascar, composĂ©e par le Sieur de Flacourt, directeur general de la Compagnie Française de lâOrient, et commandant pour Sa MajestĂ© dans la-dite isles et les isles adjacentes and Relation de la Grande Isle Madagascar contenant ce qui s'est passĂ© entre les Français et les Originaires de cette Isle, depuis lâan 1642 jusques en lâan 1655, 1656, 1657. Paris: Gervais Clouzier/Troyes: Nicolas Oudot.
- ^ Flacourt, E. de. 1661 [1995]. Histoire de la Grande Isle Madagascar. C. Allibert Ed. Paris: INALCO & Karthala.
- ^ Flacourt, Ătienne de & Allibert, Claude. (2007). Histoire de la grande isle Madagascar. Harmattan.
- ^ Froidevaux, Henri. (1915). Les derniers projets du duc de la Meilleraye sur Madagascar (1663). Revue de l'Histoire des Colonies Francaise, 03, 5â34.
- ^ Froidevaux, Henri. (1919). Les premiers successeurs de Flacourt Ă Madagascar (FĂ©vrier 1655 â Janvier 1656). Revue de l'Histoire des Colonies Francaise, 01-03, 5â34.
- ^ Malotet, Arthur. (1898). Etienne de Flacourt: Ou, les origines de la colonisation Francaise a Madagascar, 1648â1661. Ernest Leroux: Paris.
- ^ n.a. (2003). La Case, les Sorabe, l'Histoire. From AnthropologieEnLigne.com
- ^ n.a. (?). Les Compagnies de Commerce et la premiĂšre colonisation de Madagascar. From AnthropologieEnLigne.com
- ^ Aniruddha, R. (1979). French Colonial Policy in seventeenth century Madagascar: François Martin's Account, Archipel, 17(17), 81â97.
- ^ Villars, Capitaine de (1912). Madagascar 1638â1894. Ătablissement des Français dans l'Ăźle. Paris: L. Fournier.
- ^ Flacourt, S. de. (1660s?). Map of Fort Dauphin.
- ^ 1650s Map of Anosy by Flacourt.
- ^ Abraham Samuel
- ^ Tantet. (1901â1902). Une excursion en pays Antanosy au XVIIIe Siecle. Revue Coloniale, pp. 121â127.
- ^ Guigue, Albert. (1917). La carriĂšre coloniale de Mengaud de la Hage (1772â1777) Revue de l'Histoire des Colonies Francaise, V3em Trimestre, 257â330.
- ^ Grandidier, A. (1868). Carnets de voyageâCarnets n07 et 8: Voyage chez les AntanosyâCarnets nâ9 et 10: Notes prises sur les Antanosy. Paris manuscrit MusCe de lâHomme (en microfiches centre de documentation de lâERA, TulCar: surtout chap. 111).
- ^ Grandidier, A. (1872). Excursion chez les Antanosses. CmigrCs-Paris, Delagrave, 20 p.
- ^ Grandidier, G. (1958). Histoire physique, naturelle et politique de Madagascar (Vol. V). Histoire politique et coloniale (Tome III). Histoire des populations autres que les Merina-Fascicule I. Betsileo, Betsimisaraka, Antanosy, Sihanaka, Tsimihety, Bezanozano. Imprimerie Officielle, Tananarive. 253p-(voir chap.3, Histoire des Antanosy, 7 1- 116).
- ^ Guigue, Albert. (1916). Les Francais dans l'Anosy, Revue de l'Histoire des Colonies Francaise, IV, 356â359.
- ^ Guigue, Albert. (1919). Un questionnaire sur le passe du Sud-Est de Madagascar, Revue de l'Histoire des Colonies Francaise, VIII, 303â305.
- ^ (1995). First Norwegian-American Missionaries, 3 of 3. Norwegian-American Studies, 34(10).
- ^ Vigen, James B. (1991). A historical and missiological account of the pioneer missionaries in the establishment of the American Lutheran mission in southeast Madagascar, 1887â1911: John P. and Oline Hogstad. Doctoral Dissertation. Lutheran School of Theology, Chicago.
- ^ Walker, W.M. (2001). Defending the environment, conserving social life: Global visions and local values in southern Madagascar.
- ^ Jolly, Allison. (2004). Lords and Lemurs: Mad Scientists, Kings With Spears, and the Survival of Diversity in Madagascar. Portland: Book News.
- ^ Port d'Ehoala.