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Academic grading in the United States most commonly takes on the form of five letter grades. Historically, the grades were A, B, C, D, and F—A being the highest and F, denoting failure, the lowest. In the mid-twentieth century, many American educational institutions—especially in the Midwest (particularly the State of Michigan)—began to use the letters A, B, C, D, and E. The only difference here is that failure is denoted by F. By comparison, the grade E is sometimes used in Canada as a conditional failing grade or a final failing grade (Quebec). No grades awarded on American quality indices are conditional, except special grades like I (Incomplete) and Y (course on non-traditional calendar, assigned to regular term in which the student enrolled in the course).
The A–F (A–E) quality index is typically quantified by correlation to a five-point numerical scale as follows:
Chromatic variants, represented by + and −, are commonly used. They are usually represented as being 0.3 higher and lower than the normal (e.g., B = 3.0, so B+ = 3.3 and B− = 2.7). A few institutions use only a single midpoint between the major points on the scale; that is, they regard an A− as effectively the same grade as B+. At the University of Wisconsin, on the other hand, the single grades A− and B+ are eliminated in favor of the combination grade 'AB'. The grade AB = 3.5; BC = 2.5; and so on. Both approaches are unusual, being used by a minority of institutions.[1]
The grade A+ is a novelty in American education. The minority of institutions that use it may quantify the grade as 4.3 or 4.5, but many of them quantify A+ as 4.0 on the theory that a 4.0 scale cannot go higher than 4.0. By convention, quantitative scales are called by the highest whole number, so there is—at least, conventionally—no such scale based on 4.3 or 4.5, but it is still a 4.0 or 4-point scale because the fraction is ignored in naming the scale. D- is also sometimes omitted, under the assumption that anything less than a D is by definition failure.
American high schools and universities sometimes weight their GPAs. The following is an example of a grade distribution commonly used in American high schools, based on a total percentage of points.[1]
| Grade | Percentage |
|---|---|
| A | 90%–100% |
| B | 80%–89% |
| C | 70%–79% |
| D | 60%–69% |
| E / F | 59% and below |
The industry standard for undergraduate institutions is a minimum 2.0 average. Most graduate schools have required a 3.0 grade point average since 1975 (the transition began two decades earlier), but some schools still have 2.75 as their pass standard. Some doctoral programs do not have a formal pass standard. For example, the Michigan Doctorate, conferred by the Rackham School of Graduate Studies at the University of Michigan, is awarded solely on the basis of competence in research. It is unlikely, however, that the University of Michigan would retain a student who is doing work below 'B' quality, notwithstanding the grade point average is technically irrelevant to conferral of the degree.
Most American law schools require no more than a 2.0 grade point average to qualify for the professional doctorate in law. This is because law school grades are based on a strict bell curve system which typically results in the failure of 10-30% of first year students. A few law schools require 2.3 or 2.5 for post-doctoral degrees, such as the American LL.M. or S.J.D. degrees. Regular graduate schools have eliminated the D grade because of their objective grading systems (e.g. it is possible for an entire class to receive a B+ in a given subject whereas such an outcome would be impossible in a law school due to the bell curve system). Objective grading systems employed by graduate schools render the D grade unacceptable at such a level.
The Rackham School of Graduate Studies, for example, uses the following 9.0 scale:
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Apart from law schools (for reasons mentioned above), graduate schools in some states (California among them) continue to award the grade D in graduate school, despite having a 3.0 degree pass standard—measured against which a D (1.0) is normally considered superfluous, because even B− (2.7 or 2.5) is a failing grade in most graduate schools.
Most teachers construct an organized system for evaluating student work.
In a typical points-based system, each question in every assignment is assigned a certain number of points. A simple homework question is usually worth one point, and a lengthy project, such as an essay, is worth many more points. The points for a large project, in turn, may be further divided into smaller areas for evaluation (this is called a "rubric"): ten points for writing the correct length of an essay, five points for a well-written introduction, five points for spelling and grammar, ten points for reasoning, and so forth. The final grade for the course is calculated as a percentage of points earned out of points possible.
In a percentage-based system, each assignment, regardless of size, type, or complexity, is given a percentage score: eight correct answers out of ten is a score of 80%. The overall grade for the class is then typically weighted so that the final grade represents a stated proportion of different types of work. For example, daily homework may be counted as 50% of the final grade, chapter quizzes may count for 20%, the comprehensive final exam may count for 20%, and a major project may count for the remaining 10%.
School grades may represent rewards from teachers "for being friendly, prepared, compliant, a good school citizen, well organized and hard-working" rather than mastering the subject material.[2] Schools in the United States have used academic grades to penalize students for being bored or uncooperative, for talking out of turn, for being unable to bring a box of facial tissues for the class to share.[2] Also some teachers use Self- and Peer-Assessment to evaluate some of a student's work.
With the adoption of Standards-based education to standards, most states have created examinations in which students are compared to a standard of what educators, businesspeople, parents, and other stakeholders have determined to be what every student should know and be able to do. Students are graded as exceeding, meeting, or falling below the standard. The advantage is that students are not compared against each other, and all have the opportunity to pass the standard. However, the standard is typically set at a level that is so much higher than previous achievement, that 50–80% of students fail at least some part of the standards in the first year, including nearly all non-college bound students. Though the passage rates for all groups rises as teachers adapt to the new standards, the failure ratio of African-American, Latino, and Native American minorities remains higher than white students, whose failure rate in turn is higher than Asian-American students.
As an instrument of systemic reform, the tests are targeted to items and skills not currently in the curriculum to promote adoption of methods such as constructivist mathematics, inquiry-based science, and problem solving.
Grades can be enhanced by extra credits, awarded where students undertake optional work, additional to their compulsory school work.[3]
Grading on a curve is any system wherein the group performance is used to moderate evaluation; it need not be strictly or purely rank-based.
In the most extreme form, students are ranked and grades are assigned according to a student's rank, placing students in direct competition with one another.
| Grade | percentage of students receiving grade |
|---|---|
| A | top 7% |
| B | next 24% |
| C | middle 38% |
| D | next 24% |
| F | bottom 7% |
One model uses percentages derived from a normal distribution model of educational performance. The top grade, A, is given here for performance that exceeds the mean by +1.5 standard deviations, a B for performance between +0.5 and +1.5 standard deviations above the mean, and so on [4]. Regardless of the absolute performance of the students, the best score in the group receives a top grade, and the worst score receives a failing grade.
Rank-based grading is popular among some American educators, usually under the euphemism of grade rationing. The arguments for grade-rationing are that:
The arguments against rank-based grading are similar:
Grade point average (GPA) is a number that represents the average of a student's grades during their time at an institution. Usually it is weighted by number of credits given for the enrolled course.
Most high schools and nearly all colleges in the United States use a four-point system. Universities in Hong Kong and Canada, as well as some schools in Singapore also use this system. Under the GPA system, the maximum grade is 4.0 which is equivalent to 100 on a 100-point grading scale.
Numerical values are applied to grades as follows:
This allows grades to be easily averaged. Additionally, many schools add .33 for a + grade and subtract .33 for a − grade. Thus, a B+ yields a 3.33 where as an A– yields a 3.67. [2] A+s, if given, are usually assigned a value of 4.0 (equivalent to an A) due to the common assumption that a 4.00 is the best possible grade-point average, although 4.33 is awarded at some institutions. In some places, .25 or .3 instead of .33 is added for a + grade and subtracted for a − grade. Other institutions maintain a mid grade and award .5 for the grade. For example, an AB would receive a 3.5 grade point and a BC would receive a 2.5 grade point.
Some high schools, to reflect the varying skill required for different level courses and to discourage students from selecting easy 'A's, will give higher numerical grades for difficult courses, often referred to as a weighted GPA. For example, two common conversion systems used in honors and advanced placement courses are:
Another policy commonly used by 4.0-scale schools is to mimic the eleven-point weighted scale (see below) by adding a .33 (one third of a letter grade) to an honors or advanced placement class. (For example, a B in a regular class would be a 3.0, but in an honors or AP class it would become a B+, or 3.33).
Sometimes the 5-based weighting scale is used for AP courses and the 4.6-based scale for honors courses, but often a school will choose one system and apply it universally to all advanced courses. A small number of high schools use a 5 point scale for Honors courses, a 6 point scale for AP courses, and/or a 3 point scale for courses of below average difficulty.
A few high schools in the United States use an eleven-point system. In this system, one point is usually added to weight a more challenging course. Numerical values are applied to grades as follows:
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A very few American high schools use a twelve-point system, which differs from the above only in using the grade A+, to which the value 12.0 is applied.
At one time (until roughly the mid-20th Century), the most popular grading system in the United States used four letters, which ranked, in descending order:
This system has largely been replaced by the five-point system discussed above, but is still encountered quite often at the elementary school level, particularly in kindergarten and Grades 1 through 3 (these levels comprising the lower division of primary school). It is also occasionally used at schools for older children, including high schools, especially in the issuance of conduct or citizenship grades.
There are a few variations to this system, including the use of an O (for "outstanding") grade, which is even higher than the E; a G (for "good") placed between the E and the S; the use of a G (again for "good") instead of the E; and the lack of a U grade. In this version, E stands for "exemplary" and P proficient, with AE and AP for work that approaches the E and P levels. "Credit" is equivalent to the D level and "No Credit" is equivalent to F. [3]
The S grade may be so modified with an S+ or S−, but otherwise plus and minus are seldom used.
A similar system is used to rank practical work in the certain science department of Oxford University; however only with the grades S (Satisfactory) S+ (more than satisfactory, and may be used in the allocation of degree grades) and NS (Not Satisfactory).
Some schools use O (outstanding) instead of E.
A number of reputable liberal-arts colleges in the U.S. either do not issue grades at all (such as Antioch College, Bennington College, The Evergreen State College, Prescott College, New College of Florida, and Hampshire College) or de-emphasize them (St. John's College, Reed College, Sarah Lawrence College, College of the Atlantic). In all cases, the rationale is that grades often do not provide a clear picture of academic aptitude or of potential for success, and that learning, not achieving the highest score, should be the goal of a liberal education. In many cases, narrative evaluations are used as an alternative measurement system.
The letter grades 'I' and 'Y' are temporary grades, representing "Incomplete" and "Year", respectively. The distinction between them is so slight that most institutions only use one of them, not both.
A 'Y' grade indicates the course, or the time allowed to complete it, extends beyond the temporal bounds of a single term to encompass an entire academic or calendar year, or longer. Conversely, an 'I' grade indicates the student was satisfactorily completing a course when something happened that prevented timely completion, usually illness or injury.
The length of time allowed to complete the work for an 'I' grade varies from a deadline in the first few weeks following the end of term to a full calendar year, the latter being more usual. For some courses (such as independent studies or thesis/dissertation credits), or in some situations (such as subsequent non-enrollment), the time allowed for completion may be indefinite. Some institutions will convert the 'I' grade to an 'E' or 'F' (failing) grade if the student does not complete the course by the end of the time period; others simply make the 'I' grade permanent at that time; and a few institutions retroactively withdraw the student from the course, changing the 'I' to a 'W' grade. Most institutions allow students to apply for an extension of the completion time, upon presentation of special circumstances.
Policies on 'Y' grades are similar or identical to those for 'I' grades, but because of the historical difference in meaning ("Year" instead of "Incomplete"), it is rare for 'Y' grades to be converted to a failing grade if a student does not finish the course, but conversion to 'W' may be done.
The FN grade indicates that a student has failed a course due to non-attendance. It is calculated as an “F” in the student’s grade point average. For students receiving financial aid, failure for non-attendance may require the student to refund to the College all or part of his or her aid. The FN grade will be assigned by the faculty member at anytime following the final withdrawal date for the course. Students who are in a failing status because of non-attendance but return to the course prior to the withdrawal date may elect to withdraw from the course.
A grade of "W" indicates that a student has elected to withdrawal from a course prior to the course's withdraw deadline. It is not calculated in the student’s grade point average, which would keep the student from facing possible academic disciplinary action if he or she was to fall below the required Standards of Academic Progress (SAP). For students receiving financial aid, a grade of "W" may require the student to refund to the College all or part of his or her aid.
Standards for Academic Progress in Florida, for example, require a student to maintain a grade point average of 2.00 on the 4.00 scale. The student must also successfully complete 67% of the courses attempted, which includes previous failures, re-takes, and withdrawals. Additionally a student may not attempt a course more than three (3) times.
Students may elect to audit a college credit course or workforce credit course by completing the audit form. Students may not change from credit to audit or from audit to credit after the drop deadline. A grade of “X” will be assigned for all courses taken in audit status.
No credit will be awarded and fees for college credit courses taken on an audit basis are the same as those taken on a college credit or workforce credit basis.
Courses taken for audit do not count as hours enrolled for the following areas: veteran certification, financial aid awards, Social Security certification, international student enrollment requirements or early admission program enrollment requirements.
Standards of Academic Progress are the standards set by the school, state, Board of Education, or other agency which are required of students to adhere to in order to continue to attend classes. A student who falls below the SAP may have disciplinary action taken against him or her or denial of financial aid until the student has met the required SAP. In Florida, Standards of Academic Progress require a student to maintain a grade point average of 2.00 or above on the 4.00 numeric grading scale. The student must also successfully complete 67% of the courses attempted, which includes previous failures, re-takes, and withdrawals. Additionally a student may not attempt a course more than three (3) times.
To evaluate the scholastic standing of students, the following points are assigned to grades.
Students’ scholastic standing or grade point average is obtained by dividing the total number of grade points earned by the total number of semester hours attempted for which the foregoing grades have been assigned. Grades of “I,” “W,” “NR,” and “X” are not used in the computation of grade point average. Grades earned in college preparatory classes do not count in the computation of the grade point average.
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