Wuxia
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Wuxia or Wǔxiá (traditional Chinese: 武俠 Wǔxiá, Mandarin: [ùɕjǎ]; Cantonese Pinyin: Mou5 Hap6; Taiwanese: Bu Kiap) is a broad genre of Chinese fiction concerning the adventures of martial artists set in ancient China. Although Wuxia is traditionally a form of literature, its popularity has caused it to spread to different art forms like Chinese opera, manhua (Chinese comics), films, television series, and video games. Wuxia is a component of popular culture for many Chinese-speaking communities worldwide.
The word "Wuxia" is a compound word composed from the words Xia (俠, "honorable", "chivalrous"), which is the philosophy of the Chinese knight-errant, and Wu (武, "martial", "military"), from the Chinese term Wushu (武術), meaning "martial arts" or "kungfu". A martial artist (or pugilist) who follows the code of Xia is often referred to as a Xiake (俠客, lit: "follower of Xia") or Yóuxiá (游俠, "wandering Xia"). In some translated works of Wuxia, the pugilist is sometimes termed as a "swordsman" although he may not necessarily wield a sword.
Typically, the heroes in Chinese Wuxia fiction do not serve a lord, wield military power or belong to the aristocratic class. They are often from the lower social classes of ancient Chinese society. Wuxia heroes are usually bound by a code of chivalry, that requires them to right wrongs, especially when the helpless or the poor are oppressed. The Wuxia hero fights for righteousness and seeks to remove an oppressor, redress wrongs, or to bring retribution for past misdeeds. The Chinese Xia traditions are similar, but not exactly the same, to those of the Japanese Samurai's Bushido, the chivalry of the European knight traditions and the gunslingers of America's Westerns.
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History
Earlier precedents
Wuxia stories have their roots in some early Youxia stories from 200-300 BC. Some famous stories include Jing Ke's attempted assassination on the King of Qin and Zhuan Zhu's assassination of King Liao of Wu. In the "Assassins" chapter (刺客列傳) of Records of the Grand Historian (aka Shiji), Sima Qian outlined a number of notable assassins from the Warring States era, who undertook tasks of conducting political assassinations on aristocrats and nobles.
These assassins were known as Cike (刺客, literally: "stabbing guests"). They usually rendered their loyalties and services to feudal lords and nobles in return for rewards such as riches and women. As such, they are often compared to the Japanese Ninjas who served their Daimyos. In another section of Shiji, "Roaming Xia" (游俠列傳), Sima Qian detailed several embryonic features of Xia culture from his period. These popular phenomena were also documented in other historical records such as the Book of Han and the Book of Later Han.
Xiake stories made a turning point in the Tang Dynasty and returned in the form of Chuanqi (傳奇, literally: "legendary tales"). Stories from that era, such as Nie Yinniang (聶隱娘), The Kunlun Slave, Jing Shisanniang (荆十三娘), Hongxian (紅線) and Qiuran Ke (虬髯客), served as prototypes for the modern Wuxia stories. They featured fantasies and isolated protagonists, usually loners, who performed daring heroic deeds.
The earliest full-length novel considered to be of the Wuxia genre is the Water Margin, authored by Shi Nai'an during the Ming Dynasty. Some might classify sections of Luo Guanzhong's Romance of the Three Kingdoms as a possible early antecedent. The former criticises the deplorable socio-economic status of the late Northern Song Dynasty whilst the latter is a romanticised historical retelling of the events of the late Han Dynasty and Three Kingdoms periods. The portrayal of the 108 outlaws in Water Margin, who follow the code of honour, played an influential role in the development of Jianghu culture in later centuries. Romance of the Three Kingdoms contains classic close combat descriptions that were later borrowed by Wuxia writers in their works.
Many Wuxia works produced during the Ming and Qing dynasties were lost due to the government's strong crackdown and banning of such works. Wuxia works were deemed responsible for brewing anti-governmental sentiments that accounted for rebellions during those eras. The ethos of personal freedom and conflict-readiness of these novels were seen as seditious even in times of peace and stability. The departure from mainstream literature also meant that patronage of this genre was limited to the masses and not to the literati, which led to the stifling of the development of the Wuxia genre.
Nonetheless, the Wuxia genre remained enormously popular with the common people. Certain full-length novels such as Shigong An Qiwen (施公案奇聞) and Ernü Yingxiong Zhuan (兒女英雄傳) were cited as the clearest nascent Wuxia novels. Even Justice Bao stories from Sanxia Wuyi (三俠五義, later extended and renamed to Qixia Wuyi 七俠五義) and Xiaowuyi (小五義) incorporated much of social justice themes of later Wuxia stories.
20th century
The modern Wuxia genre rose to prominence in the early 20th century. The early 20th century and the period from the 1960s-1980s were often regarded as the golden ages of the Wuxia genre.
Wuxia fiction was banned by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) after its rise to power in the People's Republic of China. The ban was lifted in the 1980s with China's liberalisation. During the ban, Wuxia writing continued to prevail only in the 1960s in other Chinese-speaking regions out of the CCP's control, such as the Republic of China (Taiwan) and Hong Kong. Writers such as Liang Yusheng and Louis Cha (aka Jin Yong) spearheaded the founding of the "new school" (新派) Wuxia genre that differed largely from its predecessors. These writers wrote serials for newspapers and magazines, which published their works. They also incorporated several fictional themes such as mystery and romance from other cultures.
There have also been recent works written that attempt to create a post-Wuxia genre. Yu Hua is one of the notable writers, writing a weird counter-genre short story titled Blood and Plum Blossoms, in which the protagonist goes on a quest to take revenge for his father's murder, but he only does this because he is forced to and not because of any deep seated sense of honor, dignity, or filially.
Themes, plots and settings
The modern Wuxia stories are basically adventure stories set in ancient China. The plots of Wuxia stories vary from writer to writer, but there are distinct similarities between Wuxia protagonists and characters from the modern Western fantasy genre. The fantasy element is not prerequisite of a Wuxia story and it is possible for a Wuxia story to be realistic. Louis Cha's Swordswoman Riding West on White Horse or The Book and the Sword are examples of possibly realistic Wuxia stories. However, the martial arts element is a definite part of a Wuxia story, as most of the characters must know some martial arts.
Themes of romance are also strongly featured in several Wuxia stories. The protagonists of most Wuxia stories usually have beautiful maidens to accompany them on their adventures and the story usually concludes like a fairy-tale, where the protagonist and his love interest are married and live happily ever after. The romance element is key in several of Liang Yusheng's stories, such as Baifa Monü Zhuan, and in most of Jin Yong's novels as well.
A typical Wuxia story's plot features a young male protagonist who experiences a tragedy such as losing his loved ones. He undertakes several trials and tribulations throughout his adventures and learns several forms of martial arts from various pugilists. At the end of the story, the protagonist emerges as a powerful pugilist whom few can equal. He uses his abilities to follow the Code of Xia and offers them chivalrously to mend the ills of the Jianghu. For instance, the opening chapters of Louis Cha's works follow a certain pattern; a tragic event occurs, usually one that costs the lives of the newly-introduced characters, and then it sets events into motion that will culminate in the primary action of the story.[1]
Other stories may use different structures. For instance, the protagonist is denied being accepted as a student of a martial arts sect. He experiences hardships and trains secretly and waits until there is an opportunity for him to show off his skills and surprise those who had initially looked down on him. Some stories feature a mature hero with powerful martial arts abilities confronting an equally powerful antagonist as his nemesis. The plot will gradually meander to a final dramatic showdown between the protagonist and his nemesis. These types of stories were prevalent during the era of anti-Qing revolutionaries.
Certain stories also have unique plots, such as those by Gu Long and Huang Yi. Gu Long's stories have an element of mystery and are written like detective stories. The protagonist, usually a formidable pugilist and intelligent problem-solver, embarks on a quest to solve a mystery such as a murder case. Huang Yi's stories are blended with science fiction.
Despite these genre blending elements Wuxia is primarily an historical genre of fiction. Notwithstanding this, Wuxia writers openly admit that they are unable to capture the entire history of a course of events, they choose to structure their stories along the pattern of the protagonist's progression from childhood to adulthood instead. The progression may be symbolic rather than literal, as observed in Louis Cha's The Smiling, Proud Wanderer, where the young Linghu Chong progresses from childish concerns and dalliances into much more adult ones as his unwavering loyalty repeatedly thrusts him into the rocks of betrayal at the hands of his inhuman master.[1]
The Code of Xia
The code of Xia (俠) can be likened to the Anglo-Saxon myth of Robin Hood. The hero of a Wuxia story keeps his honor by upholding justice and helping the poor, just as Robin Hood robs the rich to help the poor. A typical follower of Xia has considerable martial arts abilities that are used not just for personal gain, but employed to achieve the greater good. However, just as Robin Hood is an outlaw, the swordsman may not necessarily submit to higher authority. When part of a larger group, the code of Xia requires the group to maintain social justice within the best of the group's abilities.
The code of Xia is composed of two main virtues. Yi (義; righteousness) and Xin (信; honor). The code also emphasizes the importance of repaying benefactors after having received deeds of grace (恩) or favor from others, as well as seeking vengeance (仇) to bring villains to justice. However, the importance of vengeance is controversial, as a number of Wuxia works stress Buddhist ideals, which includes forgiveness, compassion and a prohibition on killing.
In the Jianghu, most pugilists are expected to be loyal to their martial arts teacher or Shifu (師父, aka Sifu in Cantonese pronunciation). This gave rise to the formation of several complex trees of teacher-student (master-apprentice) relations as well as the various sects such as Shaolin and Wudang. If there are any disputes between pugilists, they will choose the honorable way of settling their issues through fighting in duels. This is similar to the one-on-one sword duels adopted by Knights in Medieval Europe. Only two pugilists are involved in each duel and they are usually of the same level or status if they belong to any sect.
Skills and abilities
The martial arts in Wuxia stories are based on factual Wushu techniques and other Chinese martial arts. However, the mastery of such skills are highly exaggerated in Wuxia stories to fictitious and superhuman levels of achievement and prowess. For example, ordinary blows such as kicks or punches can have devastating effects on characters in Wuxia fiction, and certain characters who are formidable martial artists can even shoot streams of energy at opponents to knock them down or stun them. The firing of these energy streams and their impacts can even lead to explosions.
The following is a list of skills and abilities a typical pugilist or martial artist in a Wuxia story might possess:
- Martial arts (Kungfu) - fighting techniques in a codified sequence called Zhaoshi (招式) which are based on actual martial arts.
- Weapons and objects - combatants use a wide range of weapons in combat. The most commonly used ones are the saber, sword, staff, and spear. Everyday objects such as abaci, benches, fans, ink brushes, pipes, sewing needles, or various musical instruments are also used by characters as weapons as well.
- Qinggong (simplified Chinese: 轻功; traditional Chinese: 輕功) - literally means "the ability of lightness". Characters can move swiftly and lightly at superhuman speeds. They can glide on water surfaces, scale high walls and mount trees, making them seem as though they can fly. Qinggong is based on real Chinese martial arts. Some real-life martial artists such as those who practice Baguazhang, train in Qinggong for years by attaching heavy weights onto their legs. However, its use is highly exaggerated in Wuxia stories and wire-fu films in which characters can circumvent gravity and "fly".
- Neijin (內勁), Neigong (內功) or Neili (内力) - the ability to build up and cultivate mystical "inner energy" (Qi) and utilise it for several purposes. Characters use their inner energy for attack and defense purposes when combined with their martial arts. They may also use this form of energy to heal internal wounds or even purge venom from their bodies after being poisoned, or use it to attain superhuman stamina. In the context of Wuxia stories, this kind of energy is a prerequisite for practice of Qinggong, Dianxue (Dim Mak) and other superhuman feats of speed and strength. The more Neili one has, the better one can perform those mentioned feats. Neili is gained by many years of special breathing and physical exercises, consuming (sometimes accidentally or unknowingly) rare herbs, fruits or other substances of legend that are beneficial, or in some cases by deliberate transference from one to another, such as master to student. Neili can be used as a source of power for mystical skills such as projection of energy (i.e. energy blasts), toughening the body to take strikes, and increasing physical strength. Pugilists who possess these powers draw them from the use of qi originating from the body rather than black magic and wizardry however.
- Dianxue (simplified Chinese: 点穴; traditional Chinese: 點穴) these stories are most likely the source for the Dim Mak (點脈) and are based, in part, on the real-world techniques of Chin Na (擒拿). Character use these techniques to kill, paralyze, immobilize or control opponents by attacking their acupressure points (Xué 穴) with the bare hand or weapons. A victim may be immobilized for hours after being hit on the acupressure points. Such techniques may be used for healing purposes, when excessive bleeding may be halted when certain acupressure points are pressed. Real-life martial artists do use such techniques in martial arts to paralyze or stun their opponents. Their effectiveness is highly exaggerated in Wuxia stories.
In Wuxia stories, characters attain the above skills and abilities by devoting themselves to diligent study and practice. The instructions to mastering these skills are often found in "hidden (secret) manuals" known as Miji (秘笈). In some stories, specific skills can be learnt by spending several years in seclusion with a master or gathering together with a group of pugilists to assist each other.
Jianghu
The Jianghu (江湖) (Cantonese: Kong Woo), which means "rivers and lakes" literally, refers to the world of martial arts.
The Jianghu is a shared world and an alternate universe. It consists of several martial artists and pugilists gathered in the Wulin (武林), usually congregated in sects, clans, disciplines and various schools of martial arts. It is also inhabited by others such as Youxia (wandering heroes), nobles, thieves, beggars, priests, healers, merchants and craftsmen. The best Wuxia writers draw a vivid picture of the intricate themes of honour, loyalty, love and hatred between the individuals and communities within this milieu.
A common aspect of the Jianghu is the tacit suggestion that the courts of law are dysfunctional. All disputes and differences can only be resolved by use of force, as such, predicating the need for the Code of Xia and acts of chivalry. Law and order within the Jianghu is maintained by the various "orthodox" and "righteous" sects and heroes. Sometimes, these sects may gather to form an alliance against all evils within the Jianghu.
A leader, called the "Wulin Mengzhu" (武林盟主), is elected from amongst them to lead the sects to ensure law and order within the Jianghu. The leader is usually someone of great reputation for righteousness and has a high level of mastery in martial arts. In some cases, the protagonist of the story may become the leader by coincidence, while in some other cases such as in the TV miniseries Paradise, the position of the leader is hereditary. The leader is an arbiter who presides and adjudicates over all inequities and disputes. The leader is a de jure chief justice of the affairs of the Jianghu.
The term "Jianghu" is linked to cultures other than those pertaining to martial arts in Wuxia stories only. It is also applied to societies where there is no law and order. For instance, the Chinese Triads, secret societies and gangs use the term "Jianghu" to describe their world of organised crime. Sometimes, the term "Jianghu" may be replaced by the term "underworld", with reference to "criminal underworld".
In modern day terminology, Jianghu may mean any circle of interest such as show business, sports, etc. Colloquially, retirement is also referred to as "leaving the Jianghu" (退出江湖). In Wuxia stories, when a reputable pugilist decides to retire from the Jianghu, he will do so in a ceremony known as "washing hands in the golden basin" (金盆洗手). He washes his hands in the golden basin filled with water, signifying that he will no longer be involved in the affairs of the Jianghu. When a reclusive pugilist who had apparently retired from the Jianghu reappears, his reappearance is described as "re-entering the Jianghu" (重出江湖).
Books and writers
Wuxia stories have become a new genre of writing within Chinese society and have since remained popular in several countries with significant Chinese-speaking communities such as Taiwan, Singapore, Vietnam and Malaysia.
The most notable modern Wuxia writers are as follows:
| Name | Active years | Some works | Additional information |
|---|---|---|---|
| Jin Yong (金庸) | 1955-1973 | Condor Trilogy, Demi-Gods and Semi-Devils, The Smiling, Proud Wanderer, The Deer and the Cauldron | The most popular and regarded by some as the most accomplished writer to date. His works have been adapted into films and TV series for numerous times. |
| Liang Yusheng (梁羽生) | 1955-1984 | Qijian Xia Tianshan, Datang Youxia Zhuan, Baifa Monü Zhuan, Saiwai Qixia Zhuan, Yunhai Yugong Yuan, Xiagu Danxin | The pioneer of the "new school" (新派) Wuxia genre. Some of his works were adapted into films and TV series. |
| Gu Long (古龍) | 1960-1984 | Chu Liuxiang Series, Juedai Shuangjiao, Xiao Shiyi Lang, Xiaoli Feidao Series, Lu Xiaofeng Series | A writer who blends elements of mystery in his works. He writes in short paragraphs and is influenced stylistically by Western and Japanese writers. Some of his works were adapted into films and TV series. |
| Wen Ruian (溫瑞安) | Sida Mingbu, Buyi Shenxiang, Jingyan Yiqiang | His works were adapted into the TV series The Four and Face to Fate. | |
| Huang Yi (黃易) | Xunqin Ji, Fuyu Fanyun, Datang Shuanglong Zhuan | Combines Wuxia with science fiction in his works. His works were adapted into the TV series A Step into the Past, Lethal Weapons of Love and Passion and Twin of Brothers. |
Comics
Although new and original Wuxia writings have dwindled significantly in the last 25 years, particularly so as patronage and readerships of the genre decimated due to the readily available alternatives in entertainment like DVDs, affordable gaming-consoles and so forth, the genre has proliferated in kinds in Manhua (Chinese comics) in places like Hong Kong and Taiwan, with the core essentials of the Wuxia living on in weekly editions equivalent of the Japanese Manga comic books.
Some notable comic artists are listed as follows:
| Name | Some works |
|---|---|
| Ma Wing-shing (馬榮成) | Fung Wan, Chinese Hero, Black Leopard |
| Wong Yuk-long (黃玉郎) | Oriental Heroes, Weapons of the Gods, Xiaoliumang, Rulai Shenzhang |
| Khoo Fuk-lung (邱福龍) | Saint, Dragonman |
Films
The earliest Wuxia films date back to the 1920s. Films produced by King Hu and the Shaw Brothers Studio featured sophisticated action choreography using wire and trampoline assisted acrobatics combined with sped up camera techniques. The storylines in the early films were loosely adapted from existing literature.
Cheng Pei-pei and Jimmy Wang Yu were two of the biggest stars in the days of Shaw Brothers Studio and King Hu. Cantonese screen idol Connie Chan grew up starring in Wuxia films and was famous for her male roles. Jet Li is a more recent star of Wuxia films, having appeared in Swordsman II and Hero. Yuen Woo-ping is a choreographer who achieved fame by crafting stunning action-sequences in films of the genre. Mainland Chinese director Zhang Yimou's foray into Wuxia films was distinguished by the imaginative use of vivid colours and breathtaking background settings.
Wuxia was introduced to the Hollywood studios in 2000 by Ang Lee's Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon. Following Ang Lee's footsteps, Zhang Yimou made Hero, targeted for the international market, in 2003, and House of Flying Daggers in 2004. American audiences are also being introduced to Wuxia through Asian-television stations in larger cities, which feature well-produced miniseries such as Warriors of the Yang Clan and Paradise, often with English subtitles. With complex, almost soap-opera storylines, lavish sets and costumes, and veteran actors in pivotal roles, these tales can appeal to a variety of audiences.
Video games
- Sword of Xuan Yuan (軒轅劍) - a RPG with elements of Chinese mythology and fantasy
- The Legend of Sword and Fairy (仙劍奇俠傳) - a RPG with elements of Chinese mythology and fantasy. It was adapted into the TV series Chinese Paladin.
- Jade Empire
- Bujingai (武刃街)
- Heavenly Sword (玄天神劍)
- Martial Kingdoms (天下霸圖) - a strategy game developed by T-Time. It is followed by Martial Kingdoms II.
- Heroes of Jin Yong (金庸群俠傳) - a RPG based on the works of Jin Yong
- Dragon Oath (天龍八部) - a MMORPG based on Jin Yong's Demi-Gods and Semi-Devils
- Heroes of Kung Fu (武林群雄) - a MMORPG[2]
See also
- List of organisations in Wuxia fiction
- Martial arts film
- Wire fu
- Zhou Tong (archer)
References
- Liu, James J.Y. The Chinese Knight Errant. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1967 (ISBN 0-226-48688-5)
- Hamm, John Christopher. Paper Swordsmen: Jin Yong and the modern Chinese martial arts novel. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press, 2005 (ISBN 0-8248-2763-5)
- (Chinese) 汪涌豪 《中国游侠史》 上海：上海文化出版社，1994 [Wang, Yonghao: "History of Chinese Knight-errantry". Shanghai: Shanghai Wenhua Chubanshe, 1994]
External links
- Introduction to the Wuxia genre
- Wuxiapedia - a comprehensive database for all things Wuxia, including translations of popular Wuxia novels, fully-annotated references of Wuxia elements, and Wuxia-related research articles.
- WuxiaSociety.org An English based Wuxia portal, society of English-speaking Wuxia fans around the globe, formerly known as Wuxiamania discussion forum
- Wuxia pian
- Zhang Ziyi CSC: Wuxia Fiction
- Wu Xia / Martial Arts World @ Sensasian
- Wuxia Stories translated into English - Wuxia translations