Whisky

A glass of whisky

Whisky (Scottish English) or whiskey (Irish English) is a type of distilled alcoholic beverage made from fermented grain mash. Different grains are used for different varieties, including barley, malted barley, rye, malted rye, wheat, and maize (corn). Whisky is aged in wooden casks, made generally of white oak, except that in the United States corn whiskey need not be aged.

Whisky is a strictly regulated spirit worldwide with many competing denominations of origin and many classes and types. The unifying characteristics of the different classes and types are the fermentation of grains, distillation to less than 95% alcohol, and aging in wood.

Contents

Etymology

Whisky is a shortened form of usquebaugh, which English borrowed from Gaelic (Irish uisce beatha and Scottish uisge beatha). This compound descends from Old Irish uisce, "water", and bethad, "of life" and meaning literally "water of life". It meant the same thing as the Latin aqua vītae which had been applied to distilled drinks since early 14th century. Other early spellings include usquebea (1706) and iskie bae (1583). In the Irish Annals of Clonmacnoise in 1405, the first written record of whiskey appears describing the death of a chieftain at Christmas from "taking a surfeit of aqua vitae". In Scotland, the first evidence of whisky production comes from an entry in the Exchequer Rolls for 1494 where malt is sent "To Friar John Cor, by order of the king, to make aquavitae".[1]

History

The art of distillation began with the Babylonians in Mesopotamia (in what is now Iraq) from at least the 2nd millennium BC,[2] with perfumes and aromatics being distilled long before potable spirits. It is possible that the art of distillation was brought from the Mediterranean regions to Ireland by Irish missionaries between the 6th century and 7th century. Distillation was brought from Africa to Europe by the Moors,[3][4] and its use spread through the monasteries,[5] largely for medicinal purposes, such as the treatment of colic, palsy, and smallpox.[6]

Between 1100 and 1300, distillation spread to Ireland and Scotland,[7] with monastic distilleries existing in Ireland in the 12th century. Since the islands had few grapes with which to make wine, barley beer was used instead, resulting in the development of whisky.[6] In 1494, as noted above, Scotland’s Exchequer granted the malt to Friar John Cor; this was enough malt to make about 1500 bottles, so the business was apparently thriving by that time.

King James IV of Scotland (r. 1488-1513) reportedly had a great liking for Scotch whisky, and in 1506 the town of Dundee purchased a large amount of Scotch from the Guild of Surgeon Barbers, which held the monopoly on production at the time. Between 1536 and 1541, King Henry VIII of England dissolved the monasteries, sending their monks out into the general public. Whisky production moved out of a monastic setting and into personal homes and farms as newly independent monks needed to find a way to earn money for themselves.[6]

The distillation process at the time was still in its infancy; whisky itself was imbibed at a very young age, and as a result tasted very raw and brutal compared to today’s versions. Renaissance-era whisky was also very potent and not diluted, and could even be dangerous at times. Over time, and with the happy accident of someone daring to drink from a cask which had been forgotten for several years, whisky evolved into a much smoother drink.[8]

In 1707, the Acts of Union merged England and Scotland, and thereafter taxes on it rose dramatically.[8]

An Irish or Scottish man pours some whiskey into a flask in this 1869 oil painting by Erskine Nicol.

After the English Malt Tax of 1725, most of Scotland’s distillation was either shut down or forced underground. Scotch whisky was hidden under altars, in coffins, and in any available space to avoid the governmental Excisemen.[6] Scottish distillers, operating out of homemade stills, took to distilling their whisky at night, where the darkness would hide the smoke rising from the stills. For this reason, the drink was known as moonshine.[7] At one point, it was estimated that over half of Scotland’s whisky output was illegal.[8]

In America, whisky was used as currency during the American Revolution. It also was a highly coveted sundry and when an additional excise tax was levied against it, the 1794 Whiskey Rebellion took place.[7]

In 1823, the UK passed the Excise Act, legalising the distillation (for a fee), and this put a practical end to the large-scale production of Scottish moonshine.[6]

In 1831, Aeneas Coffey invented the Coffey still, allowing for cheaper and more efficient distillation of whisky. In 1850, Andrew Usher mixed traditional whisky with that from the new Coffey still, and in doing so created the first Scottish blended whisky. This new grain whisky was scoffed at by Irish distillers, who clung to their malt whisky. Many Irish contended that the new mixture was, in fact, not whisky at all.[3]

By the 1880s, the French brandy industry was devastated by the phylloxera pest that ruined much of the grape crop; as a result, whisky became the primary liquor in many markets.[6]

During the Prohibition era in the 1920's in the United States, all alcohol sales were banned in the country. However, the federal government made an exemption for whisky, which could be prescribed by a doctor and sold through licensed pharmacies. During this time, the Walgreens pharmacy chain grew from 20 retail stores to almost 400.[9]

Types

Copper Pot stills at Auchentoshan Distillery in Scotland
Malted barley is an ingredient of some whiskies.

Whisky or whisky-like products are produced in most grain-growing areas. They differ in base product, alcoholic content, and quality.

Malts and grains are combined in various ways

Whiskies do not mature in the bottle, only in the cask, so the "age" of a whisky is the time between distillation and bottling. This reflects how much the cask has interacted with the whisky, changing its chemical makeup and taste. Whiskies which have been in bottle for many years may have a rarity value, but are not "older" and will not necessarily be "better" than a more recently made whisky matured in wood for a similar time. Most whiskies are sold at or near an alcoholic strength of 40% abv.

American whiskeys

American whiskey is distilled from a fermented mash of cereal grain. It must have the taste, aroma, and other characteristics commonly attributed to whiskey.

The types listed in the federal regulations[10] are:

These "named types" of American whiskey must be distilled to not more than 80% alcohol by volume. They must then be aged in charred new oak containers, except for corn whiskey. Corn whiskey does not have to be aged but, if it is aged, it must be in new un-charred oak barrels or used barrels. The ageing for corn whiskey usually is brief, e.g., six months.

If the aging for a "named type" reaches 2 years or beyond, the whiskey is then additionally designated "straight" e.g., "straight rye whiskey". "Straight whiskey" (without naming a grain) is a whiskey which has been aged in charred new oak containers for 2 years or more and distilled at not more than 80% alcohol by volume but is derived from less than 51% of any one grain.

American blended whiskeys combine straight whiskey with grain neutral spirits (GNS), flavourings and colourings. The percentage of GNS must be disclosed on the label and may be as much at 80% on a proof gallon basis. Blended whiskey has the same alcohol content as straight whiskey but a much milder flavour.

Important in the marketplace is Tennessee whiskey, of which Jack Daniel's is the leading example. During production it is identical to bourbon whiskey in almost every important respect including the sour mash process. The only differences is that Tennessee whiskey is filtered through sugar maple charcoal, which is claimed to remove some unpleasant flavours and odours and produce a cleaner spirit. Though not defined by Federal regulations, the Government of the United States officially recognized Tennessee whiskey as a separate style distinct from bourbon in 1941.[11]

Australian whiskies

Australia produces a number of single malt whiskies. The whiskies being produced on the island State of Tasmania in particular are receiving global attention.

Australian whiskies are winning an increasing number of global whisky awards and medals, including for example the World Whiskies Awards and Jim Murray's Whisky Bible 'Liquid Gold Awards'.

Australian distilleries include: Bakery Hill, Hellyers Road, Lark, Limeburners, Nant, Small Concern (no longer operating), Smith's (no longer operating) and Sullivan's Cove.

Canadian whiskies

Various Canadian whiskies

Canadian whiskies are usually lighter and smoother than other whisky styles. Another common characteristic of many Canadian whiskies is their use of rye that has been malted, which provides a fuller flavour and smoothness. By Canadian law,[12] Canadian whiskies must be produced in Canada, be distilled from a fermented mash of cereal grain, "be aged in small wood for not less than 3 years", and "possess the aroma, taste and character generally attributed to Canadian whisky". The terms "Canadian Whisky", "Canadian Rye Whisky" and "Rye Whisky" are legally indistinguishable in Canada and do not denote any particular proportion of rye or other grain used in production.

Finnish whiskies

There are two working distilleries in Finland and a third one is under construction. Whisky retail sales in Finland are controlled solely by the state alcohol monopoly Alko and advertisement of strong alcoholic beverages is banned.[13]

German whiskies

The distillation of German-made whisky is a relatively recent phenomenon having only started in the last 30 years. The styles produced resemble those made in Ireland, Scotland and the United States: single malts, blends, and bourbon styles. There is no standard spelling of German whiskies with distilleries using both "whisky" and "whiskey" and one even using "whessky", a play on the word whisky and Hessen, the state in which it is produced. There are currently 23 distilleries in Germany producing whisky.[14]

Indian whiskies

Indian whisky is an alcoholic beverage that is labelled as "whisky" in India. Much Indian whisky is distilled from fermented molasses, and as such would be considered a sort of rum outside of the Indian subcontinent.[15] In India, 90% of the "whisky" consumed is molasses based, although India has begun to distill whisky from malt and other grains.[16]

Kasauli Distillery is set in the Himalaya mountains and opened in the late 1820s. The main whisky brand is a single malt named "Solan No. 1". This was named after the town nearby called Solan. It was the best selling Indian whisky till recently, but has declined since the early 1980s because of the stiff competition from the larger distilleries. Other whiskies this distillery produces are Diplomat Deluxe, Colonel's Special, Black Knight and Summer Hall.[17]

Irish whiskeys

Various Irish whiskeys

Most Irish whiskeys are distilled three times[18]. Though traditionally distilled using pot stills, column still are now used to produce grain whiskey for blends. By law, Irish whiskey must be produced in Ireland and aged in wooden casks for a period of no less than three years, although in practice it is usually three or four times that period.[19] Unpeated malt is almost always used, the main exception being Connemara Peated Malt whiskey.

There are several types of whiskey common to Ireland: single malt, single grain, blended whiskey and uniquely to Ireland, pure pot still whiskey. The designation "pure pot still" as used in Ireland generally refers to whiskey made of 100% barley, mixed malted and unmalted, and distilled in a pot still made of copper. The "green" unmalted barley gives the traditional pure pot still whiskey a spicy, uniquely Irish quality. Like single malt, pure pot still is sold as such or blended with grain whiskey. Usually no real distinction is made between whether a blended whiskey was made from single malt or pure pot still.

Japanese whiskies

The model for Japanese whiskies is the single malt Scotch, although there are also examples of Japanese blended whiskies. The base is a mash of malted barley, dried in kilns fired with a little peat (although considerably less than in Scotland), and distilled using the pot still method. For some time exports of Japanese whisky suffered from the belief in the West that whisky made in the Scotch style, but not produced in Scotland, was inferior, and until fairly recently, the market for Japanese whiskies was almost entirely domestic. In recent years, Japanese whiskies have won prestigious international awards and now enjoy a reputation as a quality product.[20][21]

Scotch whiskies

Various Scotch whiskies
Main article: Scotch whisky

Scotch whiskies are generally distilled twice, though some are distilled a third time.[22] In fact, in 2009 the Bruichladdich distillery released a quadruple-distilled whisky called X4 + 3. It was the first ever official whisky of its type[23].International laws require anything bearing the label "Scotch" to be distilled in Scotland and matured for a minimum of three years and one day in oak casks, among other, more specific criteria.[24] An age statement on the bottle, in the form of a number, must reflect the age of the youngest Scotch whisky used to produce that product. A whisky with an age statement is known as guaranteed age whisky. [25] Scotch whisky without an age statement may, by law, be as young as three years old. [26]

The basic types of Scotch are malt and grain, which are combined to create blends. Many, though not all, Scotch whiskies use peat smoke to treat their malt, giving Scotch its distinctive smoky flavour. Scotch whiskies are divided into five main regions: Highland, Lowland, Islay, Speyside and Campbeltown.

Swedish whiskies

Sweden has a young, but growing whisky industry.
The Mackmyra distillery[27], started selling its products in 2006.
Spirit of Hven started distilling in 2008 with products expected on the market circa 2012. The Smögen distillery in Hunnebostrand on the Swedish west coast started distilling in August 2010, and the Box distillery near Härnösand in northern Sweden are expected to start distilling in the second half of 2010.
Additionally, another half dozen or so future Swedish distilleries are in different levels of preparation.[28]

Welsh whiskies

In 2000, Penderyn Distillery started production of the Penderyn single malt Welsh whisky in Wales, the first Welsh whisky since all production ended in 1894. The first bottles went on sale on 1 March 2004, Saint David's Day, and the whisky is now sold throughout the world. Penderyn Distillery is situated in the Brecon Beacons National Park and is considered the smallest distillery in the world.[29]

Other whiskies

In Brittany, France, five distilleries (Distillerie des Menhirs,[30] Guillon,[31] Glann ar Mor,[32] Kaerilis[33] and Warenghem[34]) produce whisky using techniques similar to those in Scotland.

One whisky is produced on the French island of Corsica: Pietra & Mavella (P&M) is a coproduction of the brewery Pietra and the distillery Mavella. The mash is enriched with chestnut flour. P&M is matured in muscat casks (Domaine Gentile).[35]

Manx Spirit from the Isle of Man is, like some Virginia whiskeys in the USA, distilled elsewhere and re-distilled in the country of its nominal "origin".

In Spain there is a distillery named DYC, started in 1948.

In the Netherlands there are two distilleries. From Zuidam distillers a single malt called (Millstone[36]), and from the Us Heit Distillery the (Frysk Hynder[37]) single malt.

Recently at least two distilleries in the traditionally brandy-producing Caucasus region announced their plans to enter the Russian domestic market with whiskies. The Stavropol-based Praskoveysky distillery bases its product on Irish technology, while in Kizlyar, Dagestan's "Russian Whisky" announced a Scotch-inspired drink in single malt, blended and wheat varieties.[38]

In Taiwan, the King Car company built a whisky distillery in the city of Yilan, and has recently begun marketing Kavalan Single Malt Whisky.[39]

Production of whisky started in Norfolk, England in late 2006 and the first whisky (as opposed to malt spirit) was made available to the public in November 2009. This is the first English single malt in over 100 years. It was produced at St George's Distillery by the English Whisky Company.[40] Previously Bristol and Liverpool were centres of English whisky production. East Anglia is a source of much of the grain used in Scotch whisky.

Names and spellings

The word "whisky" is believed to have been coined by soldiers of King Henry II who invaded Ireland in the 12th century as they struggled to pronounce the native Irish words uisce beatha [ɪʃkʲə bʲahə], meaning "water of life". Over time, the pronunciation changed from "whishkeyba" (an approximation of how the Irish term sounds) to "whisky". The name itself is a Gaelic calque of the Latin phrase aqua vitae, meaning "water of life".[41]

Much is made of the word's two spellings, whisky and whiskey. Today, the spelling whisky (plural whiskies) is generally used for whiskies distilled in Scotland, Wales, Canada, and Japan, while whiskey (plural whiskeys) is used for the whiskeys distilled in Ireland and the United States. However, several prominent American brands, such as Maker's Mark and George Dickel, use the 'whisky' spelling. When writing generally about this type of spirit, either spelling is correct.

The spelling of whiskey with the “e” came about in the late 19th Century, when the Irish distillers altered the spelling to differentiate their product from that of Scotland when exporting overseas. At the time, Scotch whisky was of quite poor quality, and it was often distilled in Coffey stills instead of pot stills – a technique which, whilst more efficient, tends to remove some flavour. American brands using the Scottish version of the spelling of “whisky” tend to have been founded by individuals with Scottish ancestry.[42]

"Scotch" is the internationally recognised term for "Scotch whisky". It is rarely used in Scotland, where the drink is called 'whisky.'[43]

Chemistry

Whiskies and other distilled beverages such as cognac and rum are complex beverages containing a vast range of flavouring compounds, of which some 200 to 300 can be easily detected by chemical analysis. The flavouring chemicals include "carbonyl compounds, alcohols, carboxylic acids and their esters, nitrogen- and sulfur-containing compounds, tannins and other polyphenolic compounds, terpenes, and oxygen-containing heterocyclic compounds" and esters of fatty acids.[44] The nitrogen compounds include pyridines, picolines and pyrazines.[45]

Flavours from distillation

The flavouring of whisky is partially determined by the presence of congeners and fusel oils. Fusel oils are higher alcohols than ethanol, are mildly toxic, and have a strong, disagreeable smell and taste. An excess of fusel oils in whisky is considered a defect. A variety of methods are employed in the distillation process to remove unwanted fusel oils. Traditionally, American distillers focused on secondary filtration using charcoal, gravel, sand, or linen to remove undesired distillates. Canadian distillers have traditionally employed column stills which can be controlled to produce an almost pure (and less flavourful) ethanol known as neutral grain spirit or grain neutral spirit (GNS).[46] Flavour is restored by blending the neutral grain spirits with flavouring whiskies.[47]

Acetals are rapidly formed in distillates and a great many are found in distilled beverages, the most prominent being acetaldehyde diethyl acetal (1,1-diethoxyethane). Among whiskies the highest levels are associated with malt whisky.[48] This acetal is a principal flavour compound in sherry, and contributes fruitiness to the aroma.[49]

The diketone diacetyl (2,3-Butanedione) has a buttery aroma and is present in almost all distilled beverages. Whiskies and cognacs typically contain more than vodkas, but significantly less than rums or brandies.[50]

Flavours from oak

Whisky lactone (3-methyl-4-octanolide) is found in all types of oak. This lactone has a strong coconut aroma.[51] Whisky lactone is also known as quercus lactone.[52]

Commercially charred oaks are rich in phenolic compounds. One study identified 40 different phenolic compounds. The coumarin scopoletin is present in whisky, with the highest level reported in Bourbon whiskey.[53]

See also

  • Whisky Olympics
  • American Whiskey Trail
  • Poitín
  • Skalk
  • List of cocktails made with whisky
  • List of whisky brands
  • Bottled in bond
  • If-by-whiskey

References

  1. ↑ Ross, James. Whisky. Routledge. p. 158. ISBN 0710066856. 
  2. ↑ Martin Levey (1956). "Babylonian Chemistry: A Study of Arabic and Second Millennium B.C. Perfumery", Osiris 12, p. 376-389.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Magee, Malachy (1980). Irish Whiskey - A 1000 year tradition. O'Brien press. p. 144. ISBN 0862782287. 
  4. ↑ Russell, Inge (2003). Whisky: technology, production and marketing. Academic Press. p. 14. ISBN 9780126692020. 
  5. ↑ Whisky History - The Whisky Guide, www.thewhiskyguide.com
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 "History of Scotch Whisky". http://whisky.com/history.html. Retrieved 6 Jan 2010. 
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 homecooking.about.com/od/foodhistory/a/whiskeyhistory.htm
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 "The History of Whisky". http://www.thewhiskyguide.com/Facts/History.html. 
  9. ↑ When Capitalism Meets Cannabis
  10. ↑ "Standards of Identity for Distilled Spirits, Title 27 Code of Federal Regulations, Pt. 5.22". http://edocket.access.gpo.gov/cfr_2008/aprqtr/pdf/27cfr5.22.pdf. Retrieved 2008-10-17. 
  11. ↑ Said, Mellgren, Olivier, James (2005). The bar: a spirited guide to cocktail alchemy. Ten Speed Press. pp. 52. ISBN 1580086829, 9781580086820. 
  12. ↑ "Food and Drugs Act, Food and Drug Regulations (C.R.C., c. 870)". http://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/F-27/C.R.C.-c.870/236939.html#Section-B.02.020. Retrieved 2007-01-23. 
  13. ↑ ""WITH A DASH OF WATER" Finnish Whisky Culture and its Future". http://batman.jamk.fi/~voyager/opin/index.php?show=3995. Retrieved 2009-07-22. 
  14. ↑ MaClean, Charles (2008). Whiskey. Dorling Kindersley. pp. 254–265. ISBN 978-0-7566-3349-3. 
  15. ↑ Paul Peachey (2006-03-03). "Battle for the world's largest whisky market -- India". South Africa Mail & Guardian. Archived from the original on 2008-06-01. http://web.archive.org/web/20080601194459/http://www.mg.co.za/articlePage.aspx?articleid=265802&area=/breaking_news/breaking_news__business/. Retrieved 2007-06-25. 
  16. ↑ "Amrut Distilleries". http://www.amrutdistilleries.com/. Retrieved 2010-04-03. 
  17. ↑ "Planet Whiskies Lists of Indian Whisky Distilleries". http://www.planetwhiskies.com/distilleries/indian.html. Retrieved 2009-05-19. 
  18. ↑ Differences between Scotch and Irish whiskey
  19. ↑ Government of Ireland. "Irish Whiskey Act, 1980". Archived from the original on 2007-03-22. http://web.archive.org/web/20070322051933/http://www.irishstatutebook.ie/1980_33.html. Retrieved 2007-02-20. 
  20. ↑ Nikka Yoichi 10 Single Cask scores highest
  21. ↑ 2008 World Whisky Awards
  22. ↑ Jackson, Michael (1994). Michael Jackson's Malt Whisky Companion. Dorling Kindersley. p. 12. ISBN 0-7513-0146-9. 
  23. ↑ Bruichladdich X4 The Perilous Whisky http://www.bruichladdich.com/latestnewsarticles/quadruple.htm
  24. ↑ "ASIL Insight: WTO Protections for Food Geographic Indications". http://www.asil.org/insights/insigh43.htm. Retrieved 2007-08-25. 
  25. ↑ "What does a whisky’s age really mean?". http://www.whatdoesjohnknow.com/2010/06/28/what-does-a-whiskys-age-really-mean/. 
  26. ↑ "SO, DOES AGE MATTER?" (PDF). http://www.maltmaniacs.org/whisky-articles/Malt-Maniacs-2010-04-Does-the-age-of-Scotch-whisky-matter.pdf. 
  27. ↑ Mackmyra
  28. ↑ Swedishwhisky.se
  29. ↑ "Planet Whiskies Welsh Distillery Section". http://www.planetwhiskies.com/distilleries/welsh.html. Retrieved 2009-05-19. 
  30. ↑ (French)Distillerie des Menhirs
  31. ↑ (French)Guillon
  32. ↑ (French)Glann ar Mor
  33. ↑ (French)Kaerilis
  34. ↑ (French)Warenghem
  35. ↑ Here is an introduction to Corsican food, drink and natural products
  36. ↑ Millstone
  37. ↑ Frysk Hynder
  38. ↑ "Lenta.ru report (in Russian)". http://lenta.ru/news/2008/04/17/whiskey/. 
  39. ↑ King Car Whisky Distillery
  40. ↑ St George's distillery
  41. ↑ Lloyd, J & Mitchinson, J: "The Book of General Ignorance". Faber & Faber, 2006.
  42. ↑ Whisky or Whiskey
  43. ↑ "Scotch: Definition, Synonyms and Much More from Answers.com". www.answers.com. http://www.answers.com/topic/scotch-1. Retrieved 2008-06-21. 
  44. ↑ Maarse, H. (1991). Volatile Compounds in Foods and Beverages. CRC Press. p. 548. ISBN 0824783905. http://books.google.com/books?id=_OvXjhLUz-oC. 
  45. ↑ Belitz, Hans-Dieter; Peter Schieberle & Werner Grosch (2004). Food Chemistry. Springer. p. 936. ISBN 3540408185. http://books.google.com/books?id=_QWbLTSL6HoC. 
  46. ↑ "Pure Alcohol (Ethanol)" (PDF). http://www.pharmco-prod.com/pages/ep1.pdf. Retrieved 2007-12-18. 
  47. ↑ Robert Hess (2007-08-25). "Canadian Whiskey". The Spirit World. http://thespiritworld.net/2007/08/25/canadian-whisky/. Retrieved 2007-12-18. 
  48. ↑ Maarse, H. (1991). Volatile Compounds in Foods and Beverages. CRC Press. p. 553. ISBN 0824783905. http://books.google.com/books?id=_OvXjhLUz-oC. 
  49. ↑ "June 2007". The Beer Brewer. http://www.beerbrewer.co.uk/2007/06/. Retrieved 2007-12-18. 
  50. ↑ Maarse, H. (1991). Volatile Compounds in Foods and Beverages. CRC Press. p. 554. ISBN 0824783905. http://books.google.com/books?id=_OvXjhLUz-oC. 
  51. ↑ "Aromas and Flavours". Wine-Pages.com. http://www.wine-pages.com/guests/tom/taste5.htm. Retrieved 2007-12-18. 
  52. ↑ Belitz, Hans-Dieter; Peter Schieberle & Werner Grosch (2004). Food Chemistry. Springer. p. 383. ISBN 3540408185. http://books.google.com/books?id=_QWbLTSL6HoC. 
  53. ↑ Maarse, H. (1991). Volatile Compounds in Foods and Beverages. CRC Press. p. 574. ISBN 0824783905. http://books.google.com/books?id=_OvXjhLUz-oC. 

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