Kashrut

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Kashrut (also kashruth or kashrus, כַּשְׁרוּת) is the set of Jewish dietary laws. Food in accord with halakha (Jewish law) is termed kosher in English, from the Ashkenazi pronunciation of the Hebrew term kashér (כָּשֵׁר), meaning "fit" (in this context, fit for consumption by Jews according to traditional Jewish law). Food that is not in accordance with Jewish law is called treif (Yiddish: טרײף or treyf, derived from Hebrew: טְרֵפָה‎ trēfáh).

Many of the basic laws of kashrut are derived from the Torah's Books of Leviticus and Deuteronomy, with their details set down in the oral law that according to Jewish tradition was handed down by word of mouth down the generations from Moses^[1] and it was finally codified in the Mishnah which is the earliest portion of the Talmud. Later summaries of Halakhah such as the Shulhan Arukh, the Mishnah Berurah and other rabbinical authorities exist.

The Torah does not state reasons for most kashrut laws. Many varied reasons have been suggested, including philosophical, practical and hygienic. The Guide for the Perplexed, by Maimonides addresses this topic.

About one-sixth of American Jews maintain the kosher diet.^[2] Many Jews observe kashrut partially, by abstaining from pork or shellfish, or not drinking milk with a meat dish. Some keep kosher at home but will eat in a non-kosher restaurant.

Jews comprise only about 20% of the market for kosher food in the United States. A sizable non-Jewish segment of the population views kosher certification as an indication of wholesomeness. Strict vegetarians, Muslims, Hindus, and people with allergies to dairy foods, consider the kosher-parve designation as an assurance that a food contains no animal-derived ingredients, including milk and all of its derivatives.^[3]

The word kosher has become a part of English slang, a colloquialism meaning proper, legitimate, genuine, fair, or acceptable.^[4][5][6]

Principles

There are three categories of Kosher food – Meat, Dairy and Parve (or Pareve).^[7] The laws of kashrut pertaining to these derive from various passages in the Torah, and are numerous and complex, but the key principles can be summarized.

Only meat from particular species is permissible. Mammals that both chew their cud (ruminate) and have cloven hooves can be kosher. Animals with one characteristic but not the other (the camel, the hyrax and the hare because they have no cloven hooves, and the pig because it does not ruminate) are specifically excluded (Leviticus 11:3–8).^[8][9] In 2008, a rabbinical ruling determined that giraffes and their milk are eligible to be considered kosher. The giraffe both has split hooves and chews its cud, characteristics of animals considered kosher. Findings from 2008 show that giraffe milk curdles, meeting kosher standards. Although kosher, the giraffe is not slaughtered today because the process would be very costly, they are hard animals to restrain, and to prevent the species from becoming endangered.^[10][11][12]

Non-kosher birds are listed outright (Deuteronomy 14:12–18) but the exact zoological references are disputed and some references refer to families of birds (24 are mentioned). The Mishnah^[13] refers to four signs provided by the sages.^[14] First, a dores (predatory bird) is not kosher. Additionally, kosher birds possess three physical characteristics: an extra toe, a zefek (crop,) and a korkoban (gizzard) with a peelable lumen. However, individual Jews are barred from merely applying these regulations alone; an established tradition (masorah) is necessary to allow birds to be consumed, even if it can be substantiated that they meet all four criteria.^[15] The only exception to this is turkey. There was a time when certain authorities considered the signs enough, so Jews started eating this bird without a masorah because it possesses all the signs (simanim in Hebrew) and there is a place for this in Jewish law.

Fish must have fins and scales to be kosher (Leviticus 11:9–12). Shellfish and other non-fish water fauna are not kosher.^[16]

Insects are not kosher, except for certain species of kosher locust (unrecognized in almost all communities).^[17]

That an animal is untamed does not preclude it from being kosher, but a wild animal must be trapped and ritually slaughtered (shechted) rather than killed some other way to be kosher. Generally any animal that eats other animals, whether they kill their food or eat carrion (Leviticus 11:13–31), is not kosher, as well as any animal that was partially eaten by other animals (Exodus 22:30/Exodus 22:31).

Meat and milk (or derivatives) cannot be mixed (Deuteronomy 14:21) in the sense that meat and dairy products are not served at the same meal, served or cooked in the same utensils, or stored together. Observant Jews have separate sets of dishes, and sometimes different kitchens, for meat and milk, and wait anywhere between one and six hours after eating meat before consuming milk products.^[18]

Examples of cloven hooves in goats (upper left), pigs (lower left) and cattle (lower right). But horses lack cloven hooves (upper right).

Mammals and fowl must be slaughtered in a specific fashion: slaughter is done by a trained individual (a shochet) using a special method of slaughter, shechita (Deuteronomy 12:21). Among other features, shechita slaughter severs the jugular vein, carotid artery, esophagus and trachea in a single continuous cutting movement with an unserrated, sharp knife, avoiding unnecessary pain to the animal. Failure of any of these criteria renders the meat of the animal unsuitable. The body must be checked after slaughter to confirm that the animal had no medical condition or defect that would have caused it to die of its own accord within a year, which would make the meat unsuitable.^[19] As much blood as possible must be removed (Leviticus 17:10) through the kashering process; this is usually done through soaking and salting the meat, but organs rich in blood (the liver) are grilled over an open flame.^[20]

Utensils used for non-kosher foods become non-kosher, and make even otherwise kosher food prepared with them non-kosher. Some such utensils, depending on the material they are made from, can be made suitable for preparing kosher food again by immersion in boiling water or by the application of a blowtorch. Food prepared by Jews in a manner that violates the Shabbat (Sabbath) may not be eaten until the Shabbat is over.^[21]

Pesah (Passover) has special dietary rules, the most important of which is the prohibition on eating leavened bread or derivatives of this (chametz, Exodus 12:15). Utensils used in preparing and serving chametz are also forbidden on Passover unless they have been cleansed (kashering).^[22] Observant Jews often have separate sets of meat and dairy utensils for Passover use only.

Certain foods must have been prepared in whole or in part by Jews, including grape wine,^[23] certain cooked foods (bishul akum)^[24] cheese (gvinat akum,) and according to some also butter (chem'at akum);^[25] according to many, certain dairy products (Hebrew: חלב ישראל chalav Yisrael "milk of Israel");^[25][26] according to some, bread (under certain circumstances) (Pat Yisrael).^[27]

A cocoon found among barleycorns in a commercially available bag of barley. Foods such as seeds, nuts and vegetables need to be checked to avoid eating insects.

Biblical rules control the use of agriculture produce. For produce grown in the Land of Israel a modified version of the biblical tithes must be applied, including Terumat HaMaaser, Maaser Rishon, Maaser Sheni, and Maaser Ani (untithed produce is called tevel); the fruit of the first three years of a tree's growth or replanting are forbidden for eating or any other use as orlah;^[28] produce grown in the Land of Israel on the seventh year is Shviit, and unless managed carefully is forbidden as a violation of the Shmita (Sabbatical Year).

Some rules of kashrut are not universally observed: the rule against eating chadash (new grain) before the 16th of the month Nisan; many hold that this rule does not apply outside the Land of Israel. In addition, some groups follow various eating restrictions on Passover that go beyond the rules of kashrut, such as the eating of gebrochts or garlic.

Reason for kashrut laws

There continues to be a debate among various theories about the purposes and meaning of the laws regarding kashrut.

Traditional Jewish philosophy divides the 613 mitzvot into three groups—laws that have a rational explanation and would probably be enacted by most orderly societies (mishpatim), laws that are understood after being explained, but would not be legislated without the Torah's command, (edot), and laws that do not have a rational explanation(chukim).

Some Jewish scholars have held that these dietary laws should simply be categorized with a group of laws that are considered irrational in that there is no particular explanation for their existence. The reason for this is that it is believed that there are some of God's regulations for mankind that the human mind is not necessarily capable of understanding. Related to this is the idea that the dietary laws were given as a demonstration of God's authority and that man should obey without asking for a reason.^[29]

This last view has been rejected by most classical and modern Jewish authorities . For example Maimonides holds that a Jew is permitted to seek out reasons for the laws of the Torah.^[30]

Moral symbolism

During the first few centuries of the Common Era some philosophers held that the laws of kashrut were symbolic in character. In this view, kosher animals represent virtues, while non-kosher animals represent vices. The first indication of this view can be found in the 1st century BCE Letter of Aristeas, which argues that the laws "have been given ... to awake pious thoughts and to form the character".^[31] It later reappears in the prolix allegories of Philo of Alexandria, and in the writings of some of the early Christian Church Fathers. The majority of Jewish and Christian theologians, and biblical scholars, reject the symbolism hypothesis, but it features in the work of the 19th century Rabbi Samson Raphael Hirsch.

The Torah prohibits 'seething the kid (goat, sheep, calf) in its mother's milk', a practice cruel only in concept, that would not be understood as cruelty by either the kid or its mother and would not cause them additional suffering; but that might still potentially inflame a human's taste for ultimate power over those creatures who are weaker. Thus, kashrut prohibits the practice itself, even if the resulting mixture is to be discarded.

Health reasons

Certain of the rules of Kashrut may appear to be designed to protect human health. Prohibitions upon consuming carrion eaters (Leviticus 11:31) or the use of bowls and vessels in which animals have died (Leviticus 11:31–32) can be seen as preventing disease. Likewise, rules for processing meat, such as glatt, the requirement that lungs be checked to be free of adhesions, would help prevent consumption of animals that had been infected with tuberculosis. Similarly, the ban on slaughtering unconscious animals would prevent certain sick and possibly infectious animals from being consumed. Other rules cannot be so easily explained as health measures: e.g. certain rules, such as permission to eat locusts and beetles (KJV) (Leviticus 11:22), or the prohibition against eating the harvests of the first three years and the seventh year (Leviticus 19:23-25; 25:3-5), or the prohibition against eating pigs (Leviticus 11:3–8).

Kashrut is not set forth solely as a guide to healthy diet. The people are to be different from the other nations: "I am the LORD your God, who have separated you from the peoples." (Leviticus 20:24-26; Deuteronomy 14:2-21) There have been various attempts to provide empirical support for the view that the Israelite food laws have an over-arching health benefit or purpose, one of the earliest being from Maimonides in his Guide for the Perplexed. More recently, in 1953, Dr. David I. Macht, an Orthodox Jew who is one of the primary proponents of the theory of biblical scientific foresight, conducted toxicity experiments on many different kinds of animals and fish.^[32] His experiment involved lupin seedlings being supplied with extracts from the meat of various animals; Macht reported that in 100% of cases, extracts from ritually unclean meat inhibited the seedling's growth more than that from ritually clean meats.^[33] In addition, Dr. Macht's research indicated that mixtures of meat and milk, and meat that was not ritually slaughtered, appeared to be more toxic to lupin seeds than meat from other sources.^[34] Macht's claim that his methodology,^[35][36] known as phytopharmacology, could have any conclusions in relation to human consumption, has never^[37] been scientifically corroborated by independent researchers, and is regarded by the scientific community as not being mainstream science but, a fringe science at best; at the request of a Seventh-day Adventist Church publication, Macht's study was explicitly challenged by a series of senior biologists.^[38]

Jewish mysticism

Hasidism believes that everyday life is imbued with channels connecting with Divinity, the activation of which it sees as helping the Divine Presence to be drawn into the physical world;^[39] Hasidism argues that the food laws are related to the way such channels, termed sparks of holiness, interact with various animals.

According to the teachings of Hasidism, sparks of Holiness are released whenever a Jew manipulates any object for a holy reason (which includes eating, if it is done with the intention to provide strength to follow the laws of the Torah);^[40] however, in the view of Hasidism, not all animal products are capable of releasing their sparks of holiness.^[41] The Hasidic argument is that God designed the animals in a way that gives clear signs about whether sparks can be released from them or not, the signs being expressed in the biblical categorization into ritually clean and ritually unclean;^[42] the signs themselves are not believed to be the cause of the animal being kosher, and hence if a cow happens to be born with a fully fused hoof, it does not become non-kosher on this basis alone.

Separation from other cultures

According to Christian theologian Gordon J. Wenham, the purpose of kashrut was to help Jews maintain a distinct and separate existence from other peoples; he alleges that the effect of the laws of kashrut was to prevent socialization and intermarriage with non-Jews, preventing Jewish identity from being diluted.^[43] Wenham argued that since the impact of the food laws was a public affair, this would have enhanced Jewish attachment to them as a reminder of the distinct status of Jews.^[43]

Non-Traditional outlook

While Orthodox and Conservative authorities hold that Jews should follow the laws of kashrut as a matter of religious obligation, the Reform and Reconstructionist movements hold that these laws are no longer binding. Historically, Reform Judaism actively opposed kashrut as an archaism inhibiting the integration of Jews in the general society. More recently, some parts of the Reform community have begun to explore the option of a more traditional approach. This tradition-leaning faction agrees with mainstream Reform that the rules concerning kashrut are not obligatory, but believe that Jews should consider keeping kosher because it is a valuable way for people to bring holiness into their lives. Thus Jews are encouraged to consider adopting some or all of the rules of kashrut on a voluntary basis. The Reconstructionist movement advocates that its members accept some of the rules of kashrut.

Linguistic borrowing

By extension, the broader sense of the word kosher has the meanings legitimate, acceptable, permissible, genuine, and authentic.^{[4][5][6][44]} For example, the Babylonian Talmud uses kosher in the sense of virtuous, when referring to the Dãrayavahush I (known in English, via Latin, as Darius) as a "kosher king"; Darius, a Persian King, assisted in building the Second Temple.^[45]

The word kosher is also part of some common product names. Sometimes it is used as an abbreviation of koshering, meaning the process for making something kosher; for example, kosher salt is a form of salt with irregularly shaped crystals, making it particularly suitable for preparing meat according to the rules of kashrut, because the increased surface area of the crystals absorbs blood more effectively. At other times it is used as a synonym for Jewish tradition; for example, a kosher dill pickle is simply a pickle made in the traditional manner of Jewish New York City pickle makers, using a generous addition of garlic to the brine,^[46] and is not necessarily compliant with the traditional Jewish food laws.^[47]

Ethical eating

The translation of the root כ ש ר (K-Sh-R, Kaf-Shin-Resh) when used in this context is generally accepted to be about the "fitness" or "kosherness" of the food for consumption. There are two major strains of thought on alternative ways to practice "kashrut" to more broadly categorize food as fit for consumption.

Vegetarianism

Many vegetarian restaurants and producers of vegetarian foods acquire a hechsher, certifying that a Rabbinical organization has approved their products as being kosher. The hechsher usually certifies that certain vegetables have been checked for insect infestation and steps have been taken to ensure that cooked food meets the requirements of bishul Yisrael.

Vegetables such as lettuce, cabbage, broccoli and cauliflower must be checked for insect infestation. The proper procedure for inspecting and cleaning varies by species, growing conditions, and views of individual rabbis.

Many coffee creamers currently sold in the United States are labeled as "non-dairy", yet also have a "D" alongside their hechsher, which indicates a dairy status. This is because of an ingredient (usually sodium caseinate), which is derived from milk. The rabbis categorize it as dairy that cannot be mixed with meat, but the US government considers it to lack the nutritional value of milk. Such products are also unsuitable for vegans and other strict dairy abstainers.

On the other hand, kashrut does recognize some processes as capable of converting a meat or dairy product into a pareve one. For example, rennet is sometimes made from stomach linings, yet is acceptable for making kosher cheese,^[48] but such cheeses might not be acceptable to some vegetarians, who would eat only cheese made from a vegetarian rennet. The same applies to kosher gelatin, which is derived from fish, despite its pareve status. Eggs are also considered pareve despite being an animal product; Mayonnaise, for instance, is usually marked "pareve" despite nearly always containing egg.

Kashrut has procedures by which equipment can be cleaned of its previous non-kosher use, but that might be inadequate for those with allergies, vegetarians, or adherents to other religious statutes. For example, dairy manufacturing equipment can be cleaned well enough that the rabbis grant pareve status to products manufactured with it. Nevertheless, someone with a strong allergic sensitivity to dairy products might still react to the dairy residue, and that is why some products that are legitimately pareve carry "milk" warnings.

Animal welfare

Kashrut prohibits slaughter of an unconscious animal. Kosher slaughter, shechita, involves cutting the trachea and esophagus with a sharp, flawless knife. At the same time, the carotid arteries, which are the primary supplier of blood to the brain, are severed. The profound loss of blood and the massive drop in blood pressure render the animal insensate almost immediately. Studies done by Dr. H. H. Dukes at the Cornell University School of Veterinary Medicine indicate that the animal is unconscious within seconds of the incision.^[49] According to Rabbi Barry Dov Lerner, "... kosher slaughtering is the way that Jews try to minimize the pain and fear felt by animals being killed for food."^[50]

In 1978, a study incorporating EEG (electroencephalograph) with electrodes surgically implanted on the skull of 17 sheep and 15 calves, and conducted by Wilhelm Schulze et al. at the University of Veterinary Medicine in Germany concluded that "the slaughter in the form of a ritual cut is, if carried out properly, painless in sheep and calves according to EEG recordings and the missing defensive actions" (of the animals), but that when Captive Bolt Stunning (CBS) was used, which is common in normal (non-kosher) slaughtering,^[51] "For sheep, there were in part severe reactions both in bloodletting cut and the pain stimuli."

Kosher marketing and advertising

History of kosher marketing

In 1911, Procter & Gamble was the first company to advertise that their product, Crisco, was kosher. Over the next two decades, companies such as Lender's Bagels, Maxwell House, Manischewitz, and Empire evolved and gave the kosher market more shelf space. In the 1960s, Hebrew National hotdogs launched a "we answer to a higher authority" campaign to appeal to Jews and non-Jews alike. From that point on, kosher became a symbol for both quality and value.

The kosher market quickly expanded, and with it more opportunities for kosher products. Menachem Lubinsky, CEO of LUBICOM Marketing Consulting, created Kosherfest in the 1980s to provide a forum for those involved in the kosher industry to meet and exchange ideas. Lubinsky projects that in the next few years there may be as many as 14 million kosher consumers and $40 billion in sales of kosher products.

Product labeling standards

The circled U indicates that this product is certified as kosher by the Orthodox Union (OU). The word "pareve" indicates that this product contains neither milk nor meat derived ingredients

Although reading the label of food products can identify obviously non-kosher ingredients, some countries allow manufacturers to omit identification of certain ingredients. Such 'hidden' ingredients may include lubricants and flavorings, among other additives; in some cases, for instance, the use of natural flavorings, these ingredients are more likely to be derived from non-kosher substances.

Producers of foods and food additives can contact Jewish religious authorities to have their products certified as kosher: this would most likely involve a visit to the manufacturing facilities by a committee from a rabbinic organization, rather than by an individual rabbi, in order to inspect the production methods and contents, and if everything is sufficiently kosher a certificate would be issued.

Manufacturers sometimes identify the products that have received such certification by adding particular graphical symbols to the label. These symbols are known in Judaism as hechsherim. Due to differences in kashrut standards held by different organizations, the hechsheirim of certain Jewish authorities may at times be considered invalid by other Jewish authorities; the certification marks of the various rabbis and organisations are too numerous to list, but one of the most commonly used in the United States of America is that of the Union of Orthodox Congregations, who use a U inside a circle, symbolising the initials of Orthodox Union. A single K is sometimes used as a symbol for kosher, but since many countries do not allow letters to be trademarked (the method by which other symbols are protected from misuse), it only indicates that the company producing the product claims that it is kosher.

Many of the certification symbols are accompanied by additional letters or words to indicate the category of the product, according to Jewish religious law; the categorisation may conflict with legal classifications, especially in the case of food that Jewish religious law regards as dairy, but legal classification does not.

• D—Dairy
• M—Meat, including poultry
• Pareve—Food that is neither meat nor dairy
• Fish
• P—Passover-related (P is not used for Pareve)

In many cases constant supervision is required because, for various reasons, such as changes in manufacturing processes, products that once were kosher may cease to be so. For example, a kosher lubricating oil may be replaced by one containing tallow, which many rabbinic authorities view as non-kosher. Such changes are often co-ordinated with the supervising rabbi, or supervising organisation, to ensure that new packaging does not suggest any hechsher or kashrut. In some cases, however, existing stocks of pre-printed labels with the hechsher may continue to be used on the now non-kosher product. An active grapevine among the Jewish community discusses which products are now questionable, as well as products which have become kosher but whose labels have yet to carry the hechsher. Some newspapers and periodicals also discuss kashrut products.

Kosher-style

Products labeled "kosher-style" are nonkosher products that have characteristics of kosher foods, such as all-beef hot dogs,^[52] or are flavored or prepared in a manner consistent with Ashkenazi practices, like dill pickles.^[53] The designation usually refers to delicatessen items.

Legal usage

Advertising standards laws in many jurisdictions prohibit the use of the phrase kosher in a product's labelling, unless it can be shown that the product conforms to Jewish dietary laws; however, the legal qualifications for conforming to Jewish dietary laws are often defined differently in different jurisdictions. For example, in some places the law may require that a rabbi certify the kashrut nature, in others the rules of kosher are fully defined in law, and in others still it is sufficient that the manufacturer only believes that the product complies with Jewish dietary regulations. In several cases, laws restricting the use of the term kosher have later been determined to be illegal religious interference.

Other religions

Islam has a related but different system, named halal, and both systems have comparable methods of ritual slaughter (shechita in Judaism and Ḏabīḥah in Islam). Similarly, Hinduism has dietary system called the Sattvic diet.

The Seventh-day Adventist Church expects adherence to the kosher laws, which they refer to as clean foods.^[54] Adventists believe that adherence to the laws not only is healthy, but also keeps the body, the metaphorical temple, clean. Many members practice vegetarianism and veganism.

See also

• Civil laws regarding Kashrut
• Giving of the Foreleg, Cheeks, and Abomasum
• Kosher foods
• Kosher style
• Jewish cuisine
• Judaism
• Clean animals
• Unclean animals
• Shechita – Ritual slaughter
• Islamic dietary laws
• Islamic and Jewish dietary laws compared
• Kosher tax
• Bans on ritual slaughter
• Scottish pork taboo
• Taboo food and drink
• Chazakah
• Mashgiach
• Mega-purple – a Kosher food additive

Notes

Further reading

External links

• Dietary laws from the Torah and the Code of Maimonides (Mishneh Torah)
• ABCs of Kosher
• A useful guide to the issues of kashrut