Street children

Afghan street child smiles for the camera in downtown Kabul, Afghanistan (June 2003).

Street children is a term used to refer to children who live on the streets of a city. They are basically deprived of family care and protection. Most children on the streets are between the ages of about 5 and 17 years old, and their population between different cities is varied.

Street children live in abandoned buildings, cardboard boxes, parks or on the street itself. A great deal has been written defining street children, but the primary difficulty is that there are no precise categories, but rather a continuum, ranging from children who spend some time in the streets and sleep in a house with ill-prepared adults, to those who live entirely in the streets and have no adult supervision or care.

A widely accepted set of definitions, commonly attributed to UNICEF, divides street children into two main categories:

  1. Children on the street are those engaged in some kind of economic activity ranging from begging to vending. Most go home at the end of the day and contribute their earnings to their family. They may be attending school and retain a sense of belonging to a family. Because of the economic fragility of the family, these children may eventually opt for a permanent life on the streets.
  2. Children of the street actually live on the street (or outside of a normal family environment). Family ties may exist but are tenuous and are maintained only casually or occasionally.[1]

Street children exist in many major cities, especially in developing countries, and may be subject to abuse, neglect, exploitation, or even, in extreme cases, murder by "cleanup squads" hired by local businesses or police.[2]

In Latin America, a common cause is abandonment by poor families unable to feed all their children. In Africa, an increasingly common cause is AIDS.

Contents

Definitions

The question of how to define a street child has generated much discussion that is usefully summarized by Sarah Thomas de Benítez in, "The State of the World's Street Children: Violence."

‘Street children’ is increasingly recognized by sociologists and anthropologists to be a socially constructed category that in reality does not form a clearly defined, homogeneous population or phenomenon (Glauser, 1990; Ennew, 2000; Moura, 2002). ‘Street children’ covers children in such a wide variety of circumstances and characteristics that policy-makers and service providers find it difficult to describe and target them. Upon peeling away the ‘street children’ label, individual girls and boys of all ages are found living and working in public spaces, visible in the great majority of the world’s urban centres.[3]

The definition of ‘street children’ is contested, but many practitioners and policymakers use UNICEF’s concept of boys and girls aged under 18 for whom ‘the street’ (including unoccupied dwellings and wasteland) has become home and/or their source of livelihood, and who are inadequately protected or supervised (Black, 1993).[4]

Names

Street Children is a widely used term in the English language and has analogues in other languages such as French (les enfants des rues), Spanish (niños de la calle), Portuguese (meninos da rua), Hungarian (utcagyerekek), Romanian (copiii străzii) and German (Straßenkinder). Street kids is also commonly employed although it is sometimes considered pejorative.[5] In other languages children who live and/or work in the streets are known by many names. Some examples are listed below:

"gamín" (from French gamin, kid) and "chinches" (bed bugs) in Colombia, "pivetes" (little criminals/marginals) in Rio de Janeiro, as "pájaro frutero" (fruit bird) and "pirañitas" (little piranhas) in Peru, "polillas" (moths) in Bolivia, "resistoleros" (glue sniffers; Resistol is a major brand) in Honduras, "scugnizzi" (spinning tops) in Naples, "беспризорники" (persons without supervised living) in Russia, "Batang Lansangan" or "Pulubi" in the Philippines, "Bụi Đời" (the dust of life) in Vietnam, "saligoman" (nasty kids) in Rwanda, or "poussins" (chicks), "moustiques" (mosquitos) in Cameroon and "balados" (wanderers) in the democratic Republic of the Congo and the Congo Republic.[6]

The term Street Arab came to the fore in the mid-19th century, first appearing in 1848, according to the OED.[7] Horatio Alger's book Tattered Tom ; or, The Story of a Street Arab (1871) is an early example; it is about a homeless girl lives by her wits on the streets of New York. Charles Dickens likewise propagated its early use in 1855 but in a more clearly derogatory sense when he declared "a wretched, ragged, untaught street Arab boy is ugly."[8] In 1890, Danish-American journalist Jacob Riis described street children in New York in an essay titled "The Street Arab".[9] The Victorian association of street children with Arabs is probably reflected in the nomadic tradition of Arabs who were wanderers; the 19th century notion that non-Europeans from less civilized cultures were like children; of European and American travelers who saw many "street children" in Arab countries during the period; and a xenophobic tendency to scapegoat social problems.[7] The term has fallen out of favor.[7]

Numbers, distribution and sex

Numbers

Estimates vary but one often cited figure is that the number of children living independently in the streets totals between 100 million and 150 million worldwide.

According to a report from the Consortium for Street Children, a United Kingdom-based consortium of related NGOs:

Estimating numbers of ‘street children’ is fraught with difficulties. In 1989, UNICEF estimated 100 million children were growing up on urban streets around the world. 14 years later UNICEF reported: ‘The latest estimates put the numbers of these children as high as 100 million’ (UNICEF, 2002: 37). And even more recently: ‘The exact number of street children is impossible to quantify, but the figure almost certainly runs into tens of millions across the world. It is likely that the numbers are increasing’ (UNICEF, 2005: 40-41). The 100 million figure is still commonly cited, but has no basis in fact (see Ennew and Milne, 1989; Hecht, 1998; Green, 1998). Similarly, it is debatable whether numbers of street children are growing globally or whether it is the awareness of street children within societies which has grown.[10]

Distribution

Street children may be found on every inhabited continent in a large majority of the world's cities. The following estimates indicate the global extent of street child populations.

Gender

Although there are variations from country to country, 50% or more of street children are boys.[6][22]

History

Children sleeping in Mulberry Street - Jacob Riis photo New York, United States of America (1890)

Children making their home/livelihoods on the street is not a new or modern phenomenon. In the introduction to his history of abandoned children in Soviet Russia 1918 -1930, Alan Ball states:

Orphaned and abandoned children have been a source of misery from earliest times. They apparently accounted for most of the boy prostitutes in Augustan Rome and, a few centuries later, moved a church council of 442 in southern Gaul to declare: “Concerning abandoned children: there is general complaint that they are nowadays exposed more to dogs than to kindness.”[23] In tsarist Russia, seventeenth-century sources described destitute youths roaming the streets, and the phenomenon survived every attempt at eradication thereafter. Long before the Russian Revolution, the term besprizornye had gained wide currency.[24][25]

In 1848 Lord Ashley referred to more than 30,000 'naked, filthy, roaming lawless and deserted children', in and around London.[26]

By 1922 there were at least 7 million homeless children in Russia as a result of nearly a decade of devastation from World War I and the Russian Civil War.[27] Abandoned children formed gangs, created their own argot, and engaged in petty theft and prostitution.[28]

Examples from popular fiction include Kipling's “Kim” as a street child in colonial India, and Gavroche in Victor Hugo's Les Misérables. Fagin's crew of child pickpockets in "Oliver Twist" as well as Sherlock Holmes's "Baker Street Irregulars" attest to the presence of street children in 19th-century London.

Causes

Children may end up on the streets for several basic reasons: They may have no choice – they are abandoned, orphaned, or disowned by their parents. Secondly, they may choose to live in the streets because of mistreatment or neglect or because their homes do not or cannot provide them with basic necessities. Many children also work in the streets because their earnings are needed by their families. But homes and families are part of the larger society and the underlying reasons for the poverty or breakdown of homes and families may be social, economic, political or environmental or any combination of these.

In a 1993 report, WHO offered the following list of causes for the phenomenon:[6]

The orphaning of children as a result of HIV/AIDS is another cause that might be added to this list.[29][30]

By country

Russia

In Russia, street children usually find a home in underground pipe and cable collectors during the harsh winter. These underground homes offer space, shelter and most importantly of all, heat from hot water and central heating pipes.

Russia has 1 million street children,[31] and one in four crimes involves underage youths. Officially, the number of children without supervision is more than 700,000. However, experts believe the real figure has long been between 2 and 4 million.[32]

India

Two street children in Chennai, India

India is home to the world’s largest population of street children, estimated at 18 million.[33] The Republic of India is the seventh largest and second most populous country in the world. With acceleration in economic growth, India has become one of the fastest growing developing countries. This has created a rift between poor and rich; 22 percent of the population lives below the income poverty line. Owing to unemployment, increasing rural-urban migration, attraction of city life and a lack of political will, India now has one of the largest number of child laborers in the world.

Street children are subject to malnutrition, hunger, health problems, substance abuse, theft, commercial sexual exploitation of children, harassment by the city police and railway authorities, as well as physical and sexual abuse, although the Government of India has taken some corrective measures and declared child labor illegal.

Vietnam

According to data by the Street Educators’ Club, the number of street children in Vietnam has shrunk from 21,000 in 2003 to 8,000 in 2007. The number dropped from 1,507 to 113 in Hanoi and from 8,507 to 794 in Ho Chi Minh City. In the meantime the number of migrant children is increasing. This number is, however, unconfirmed owing to varying definitions of street children. Some experts mention several different categories of street children in Vietnam: "children who have run away from home or who have no home, and who sleep on the street; children who sleep on the street with their family or guardian; children who have a family or guardian and who usually sleep at home, but work on the streets; economic migrants who rent rooms with other working children; and bonded laborers".[34]

There are almost 400 humanitarian organisations and international non-governmental organizations providing help for about 15,000 children, who live in especially difficult conditions.[35]

Bucharest, Romania

A report of the Council of Europe of year 2000 estimated that there were approximately 1,000 street children in Bucharest, Romania.

Some Romanian street children are preyed on by sex tourists, mainly from Western Europe, and many can be seen inhaling aurolac (an aluminium-based paint traditionally used for painting a type of wood-burning stove) from plastic bags, the substance of choice for those of limited means.

Romania has made much progress, allowing the number of street children drop to low levels, which is lying at or below the European average. Given that socio-economic conditions continue to improve in Romania, the number of street children is expected to diminish.[36]

Brazil

The Federal Government estimates that 31,992 adults live on the streets in major cities.[37] There are no national statistics for minors[38]. An NGO, putting together various local government counts and other estimates, arrived at c. 9578 street-dwellers younger than 18, in state capitals;[39] it estimates they number 25,000 nation-wide.[17] It has also been pointed out that most minors living on the streets are adolescents, rather than children.[39]

The main means of surviving in Brazil's streets include: finding food in garbage bins or on refuse tips; being financially exploited by street sellers as shoe shiners, thieves, prostitutes, drug runners, and street performers.

Street children are known to receive beatings and death from the police or members of the public and also can face imprisonment, malnutrition, disease and AIDS.

The Philippines

See full article: Street children in the Philippines

According to the 1998 report, entitled "Situation of the Youth in the Philippines," there are about 1.5 million street children in the Philippines.[40]

75% of street children in the Philippines spend the night in the homes of their families, but spend the rest of the day working in the street. Between 25%-30% of street children often create a sort of family among fellow street children, and some of them may maintain an interrupted relationship with their families and the homes of their families. 5%-10% of street children are completely abandoned.[41] [42]

Street Children as young as 10 years old are often imprisoned under the Vagrancy Act, sometimes in cells which include adults, resulting in recurrent physical and sexual abuse, sometimes by guards as well.[43]

Many street children were in danger of summary execution during the Marcos Government.[44] Human rights groups said the killings have become an unwritten government policy to deal with the street children phenomenon, and that they are openly endorsed by local officials, strengthening the long-running suspicion that the death squads were formed by the government.[45]

Government and non-government responses

Responses by governments

Because they have not reached the age of majority, street children have no representation in the governing process. They have no vote themselves nor by proxy through their parents, from whom they likely are alienated. Nor do street children have any economic leverage. Governments, consequently, may pay little attention to them.

The rights of street children are often ignored by governments even though nearly all of the world's governments[46] have ratified the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child.[47] Governments are often embarrassed by street children and may blame parents or neighboring countries.[48][49] Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) may also be blamed for encouraging children to live in the streets by making street life more bearable or attractive through the services they provide.[50]

When governments implement programs to deal with street children these generally involve placing the children in orphanages, juvenile homes or correctional institutes.[51][52] However, some children are in the streets because they have fled from such institutions[53][54][55][56] and some governments prefer to support or work in partnership with NGO programs.[57] Governments sometimes institute roundups when they remove all the children from city streets and deposit them elsewhere or incarcerate them.[58][59][60]

In the most extreme cases, governments may tacitly accept or participate in social cleansing operations that murder street children.[61][62][63]

NGO responses

Non-government organizations employ a wide variety of strategies to address the needs and rights of street children. These may be categorized as follows:

Many agencies employ several of these strategies and a child will pass through a number of stages before he or she "graduates". First he/she will be contacted by an outreach program, then may become involved in drop-in center programs, though still living in the streets. Later the child may be accepted into a halfway house and finally into residential care where he or she becomes fully divorced from street life.[66][67]

See also

References

  1. ↑ http://www.unicef.org/evaldatabase/files/ZAM_01-009.pdf UNICEF assessment of street children
  2. ↑ Human Rights Watch- Abuse of Street Children
  3. ↑ Page 8, Section 2.2. "State of the World's Street Children-Violence" (PDF). www.streetchildren.org.uk. http://www.streetchildren.org.uk/reports/State%20of%20the%20World's%20Street%20Children-Violence.pdf. Retrieved 2008-02-05. 
  4. ↑ Page 2. "State of the World's Street Children-Violence" (PDF). www.streetchildren.org.uk. http://www.streetchildren.org.uk/reports/State%20of%20the%20World's%20Street%20Children-Violence.pdf. Retrieved 2008-02-05. 
  5. ↑ "Don't Call Me Street Kid Campaign English Home". www.iadb.org. http://www.iadb.org/kidscampaign/. Retrieved 2008-02-05. 
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 "Street Children: WHO 3 of 9". www.pangaea.org. http://www.pangaea.org/street_children/world/who3.htm. Retrieved 2008-02-05. 
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 "A-rabs and Arabs", John McIntyre, Baltimore Sun. "The Oxford English Dictionary locates this sense of “a homeless little wanderer, a child of the street” in a citation from 1848."
  8. ↑ Charles Dickens. Household Words: Volume 10, Bradbury & Evans, 1855. "street+arab" Page 335
  9. ↑ "XVII. The Street Arab. Riis, Jacob A. 1890. How the Other Half Lives". www.bartleby.com. http://www.bartleby.com/208/17.html. Retrieved 2008-02-05. 
  10. ↑ Page 64, Section 7.1.1. "State of the World's Street Children-Violence". www.streetchildren.org.uk. http://www.streetchildren.org.uk/reports/State%20of%20the%20World's%20Street%20Children-Violence.pdf. Retrieved 2008-02-05. 
  11. ↑ "Street Children "our lives our words" - NI 377 - The Facts". www.newint.org. http://www.newint.org/issue377/facts.htm. Retrieved 2008-02-05. 
  12. ↑ "UNICEF - Press centre - British Airways staff visit street children centres in Cairo". www.unicef.org. http://www.unicef.org/media/media_39599.html. Retrieved 2008-02-05. 
  13. ↑ "Street Children "our lives our words"". www.newint.org. http://www.newint.org/issue377/facts.htm. Retrieved 2010-03-15. 
  14. ↑ "IRIN In-Depth". www.irinnews.org. http://www.irinnews.org/Report.aspx?ReportId=69987. Retrieved 2008-02-05. 
    • Russia 1 million
    "Doctors of the World - USA: Health is a Human Right". www.dowusa.org. http://www.dowusa.org/news/article/russia-study-2007. Retrieved 2008-02-05. 
  15. ↑ "World Street Children News :: Children in detention in the Philippines :: November :: 2003". streetkidnews.blogsome.com. http://streetkidnews.blogsome.com/2003/11/14/children-in-detention-in-the-philippines/. Retrieved 2008-02-05. 
  16. ↑ Tremlett, Giles (2001-06-15). "Guardian". London: www.guardian.co.uk. http://www.guardian.co.uk/print/0,,4204467-103681,00.html. Retrieved 2008-02-05. 
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 http://www.sescsp.org.br/sesc/revistas_sesc/pb/artigo.cfm?Edicao_Id=329&breadcrumb=1&Artigo_ID=5145&IDCategoria=5903&reftype=1
  18. ↑ "Growing number of street children in Germany, report says : Europe World". www.earthtimes.org. http://www.earthtimes.org/articles/show/191615,growing-number-of-street-children-in-germany-report-says.html. Retrieved 2008-03-22. 
  19. ↑ "No night out for street kids - JAMAICAOBSERVER.COM". www.jamaicaobserver.com. http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/news/html/20070404T230000-0500_121358_OBS_NO_NIGHT_OUT_FOR_STREET_KIDS.asp. Retrieved 2008-02-05. 
  20. ↑ "Ecpat International". www.ecpat.net. http://www.ecpat.net/eng/Ecpat_inter/IRC/articles.asp?articleID=758&NewsID=64. Retrieved 2008-02-05. 
  21. ↑ "Street Children "our lives our words" - NI 377 - Ricardo: ‘The only thing I hate in the world is the police’". www.newint.org. http://www.newint.org/issue377/ricardo.htm. Retrieved 2008-02-05. 
  22. ↑ "Consortium for Street Children". www.streetchildren.org.uk. http://www.streetchildren.org.uk/faq/. Retrieved 2008-02-05. 
  23. ↑ Boswell John (1988). The Kindness of Strangers: The Abandonment of Children in Western Europe from Late Antiquity to the Renaissance. New York. pp. 112, 172.
  24. ↑ For a brief survey of changes over the centuries in the tsarist government’s response to besprizornost’ and juvenile delinquency, see:
    Krasnushkin et al.. Nishchenstvo i besprizornost’. pp. 116–122.

    For a bibliography of works published prior to 1913 on besprizornost’ and juvenile delinquency, see:
    Gernet M. N. (1912). Deti-prestupniki. Moscow. prilozhenie 3.

    For more on homeless children and juvenile delinquency in prerevolutionary Russia, see:
    Neuberger Joan (1985). Crime and Culture: Hooliganism in St. Petersburg, 1900–1914. Ph.D. dissertation. Stanford University.
    Ryndziunskii G. D.; T. M. Savinskaia (1932). Detskoe pravo. Pravovoe polozhenie detei v RSFSR. 3d ed. Moscow-Leningrad. pp. 273–274.
    Liublinskii. Bor’ba. pp. 46–50.
    Madison Bernice Q. (1968). Social Welfare in the Soviet Union. Stanford. chap. 1.
    Kalinina A. D. (1928). Desiat’ let raboty po bor’be s detskoi besprizornost’iu. Moscow-Leningrad. pp. 18–21.
    Ransel David L. (1988). Mothers of Misery: Child Abandonment in Russia. Princeton.
  25. ↑ "And Now My Soul Is Hardened". content.cdlib.org. http://content.cdlib.org/xtf/view?docId=ft700007p9&chunk.id=introduction&toc.depth=1&toc.id=introduction&brand=eschol. Retrieved 2008-02-05. 
  26. ↑ Laura Del Col, West Virginia University, The Life of the Industrial Worker in Ninteenth-Century England
  27. ↑ And Now My Soul Is Hardened: Abandoned Children in Soviet Russia, 1918-1930, By Thomas J. Hegarty, Canadian Slavonic Papers
  28. ↑ Bezprizorniki: the Homeless Children
  29. ↑ "African Orphans Project - help AIDS orphans and streetkids live a better life". inicia.es. http://inicia.es/de/timmansfield/orphansinafrica/aidsinzimbabwe.htm. Retrieved 2008-02-05. 
  30. ↑ "UNICEF - Ethiopia - Ethiopia: Steady increase in street children orphaned by AIDS". www.unicef.org. http://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/ethiopia_30783.html. Retrieved 2008-02-07. 
  31. ↑ 'Child by child,' group aids homeless street kids
  32. ↑ FCF's Work with Russian Street Kids
  33. ↑ 'Young doctors' minister to India's street children, CNN.com
  34. ↑ Duong Kim Hong and Kenichi Ohno, "Street Children in Vietnam: Interactions of Old and New Causes in a Growing Economy," Vietnam Development Forum, 2005, p. 6.
  35. ↑ Greater commitment to Vietnamese street children needed, Asia News
  36. ↑ [1]PDF (20.5 KB)
  37. ↑ [2]
  38. ↑ In Brazil, minors are defined as people younger than 18.
  39. ↑ 39.0 39.1 [3]
  40. ↑ Street Children - Philippines
  41. ↑ Teachers' Corner - Background(Detail)
  42. ↑ The Life of Street Children in the Philippines and Initiatives to Help Them
  43. ↑ [4]
  44. ↑ Preda Foundation, Inc. NEWS/ARTICLES: "Nobel Prize Nominee Lauded Around the World Deserted by His Own"
  45. ↑ Philippine death squads extend their reach - International Herald Tribune
  46. ↑ The USA and Somalia are the only states that have not ratified the CRC. See HRW Report, "Promises Broken"
  47. ↑ "PROMISES BROKEN". www.hrw.org. http://www.hrw.org/campaigns/crp/promises/index.html. Retrieved 2008-02-07. 
  48. ↑ Lopez, Allison (08/07/2007). "Manila exec revives bill penalizing parents of street kids". Philippine Daily Inquirer. MANILA, Philippines: newsinfo.inquirer.net. http://newsinfo.inquirer.net/breakingnews/metro/view_article.php?article_id=81185. Retrieved 2008-02-07. 
  49. ↑ "Joint effort to solve plight of street children". World Street Children News. streetkidnews.blogsome.com. 2006/04/01. http://streetkidnews.blogsome.com/2006/04/01/joint-effort-to-solve-plight-of-street-children/. Retrieved 2008-02-07. 
  50. ↑ "WFP denies ‘encouraging’ street children in Uganda". World Street Children News. streetkidnews.blogsome.com. 2006/09/15. http://streetkidnews.blogsome.com/2006/09/15/wfp-denies-encouraging-street-children-in-uganda/. Retrieved 2008-02-10. 
  51. ↑ Kinabalu, Kota. "Only if 500 street kids or more". Daily Express. Sabah, Malaysia: www.dailyexpress.com.my. http://www.dailyexpress.com.my/news.cfm?NewsID=34083. Retrieved 2008-02-07. 
  52. ↑ "Gov't Promises residential Facility for Street Children". Stabroek News. www.stabroeknews.com. http://www.stabroeknews.com/index.pl/article_general_news?id=56524448. Retrieved 2008-02-07. 
  53. ↑ "JRL - Russia, Children, Homelessness, Moscow Street Children". www.cdi.org. http://www.cdi.org/russia/johnson/6032-7.cfm. Retrieved 2008-02-07. 
  54. ↑ Tremlett, Giles (2001-06-15). "Perilous lives of runaways Europe does not want". London: www.guardian.co.uk. http://www.guardian.co.uk/print/0,,4204467-103681,00.html. Retrieved 2008-02-10. 
  55. ↑ "Dishing Out Food and Hope to Georgia's Street Children". www.wfp.org. http://www.wfp.org/newsroom/in_depth/Asia/georgia/georgia_streetchildren040206.asp?section=2&sub_section=2. Retrieved 2008-02-07. 
  56. ↑ "Bolivia: Abandoned Street Children Turn To Drugs". www.wfn.org. http://www.wfn.org/1999/01/msg00011.html. Retrieved 2008-02-07. 
  57. ↑ "PMC to build a nest for street kids". Indiatimes. Pune: timesofindia.indiatimes.com. http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/Pune/PMC_to_build_a_nest_for_street_kids/articleshow/2760175.cms. Retrieved 2008-02-09. 
  58. ↑ "Ethiopia: Cruel and inhumane actions against street children in Addis Ababa (World Organisation Against Torture (OMCT) Human Rights NGO)". www.geocities.com. Archived from the original on Oct 24, 2009. http://web.archive.org/web/20091024073329/http://geocities.com/lmak27455/children.html. Retrieved 2008-02-07. 
  59. ↑ "Children of the Dust: Abuse of Hanoi Street Children in Detentions" (PDF). www.hrw.org. http://hrw.org/reports/2006/vietnam1106/vietnam1106web.pdf. Retrieved 2008-02-07. 
  60. ↑ "Zimbabwe Police In Roundup Of Harare Street Children And Vendors". www.voanews.com. http://www.voanews.com/english/archive/2007-09/2007-09-12-voa39.cfm?CFID=197266405&CFTOKEN=24473604. Retrieved 2008-02-07. 
  61. ↑ "Bands of children back on streets in San Jose". www.amcostarica.com. http://www.amcostarica.com/050702.htm. Retrieved 2008-02-07. 
  62. ↑ "Armedcon: Countries, Guatemala - Historic Award to Guatemalan Street Children Families". www.essex.ac.uk. http://www.essex.ac.uk/armedcon/Countries/Americas/Future/Text/Guatemala006.htm. Retrieved 2008-02-10. 
  63. ↑ "Death squads roam Davao–UN, monitors". The Manila Times Internet Edition. www.manilatimes.net. http://www.manilatimes.net/national/2008/feb/13/yehey/top_stories/20080213top6.html. Retrieved 2008-02-12. 
  64. ↑ "Shine-A-Light". www.shinealight.org. http://www.shinealight.org/asistencialismo.html. Retrieved 2008-02-16. 
  65. ↑ "Street Action". www.streetaction.org. http://www.streetaction.org/. Retrieved 2008-02-16. 
  66. ↑ "What Works in Street Children Programming: The JUCONI Model" (PDF). International Youth Foundation. http://www.iyfnet.org/uploads/160.pdf. Retrieved 2008-02-07. 
  67. ↑ Scanlon et al. (1998). "Street children in Latin America". BMJ (www.bmj.com) 316 (7144): 1596. ISSN 0959535X. PMID PMC1113205. http://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/316/7144/1596. Retrieved 2008-02-17.  full text

External links