Curry

Curry (IPA: /ˈkʌri/, Tamil:கறி) is a generic description used throughout European culture to describe a general variety of side dishes, best known in South Asian cuisines, especially Indian cuisine. It is analogous to "soup" or "stew" in that there is no particular ingredient that makes something "curry." The word curry is an anglicised version of the Tamil word kari (கறி ),^[1] which is usually understood to mean "gravy" or "sauce" rather than "spices".^[2] In most South Indian cuisines, a curry is considered a side-dish, which can be eaten along with a main dish like rice or bread.

In Pakistan and North India, where dishes are classified as sukhi (dry) and tari (with liquid), the word curry is often confounded with the similar-sounding Hindi-Urdu word tari (from the Persian-derived tar meaning wet) and has no implications for the presence or absence of spice, or whether the dish is Indian or not (e.g. any stew, spicy or not, would be considered a curry dish, simply because it is wet).^[3][4][5] In Urdu, an official language of Pakistan , curry is usually referred to as saalan (سالن). The equivalent word for a spiced dish in Hindi-Urdu is masaledar (i.e. with masala).^[6] This article covers curry in the British sense of the term.

Curry's popularity in recent decades has spread outward from the Indian subcontinent to figure prominently in international cuisine. Consequently, each culture has adopted spices in its indigenous cooking to suit its own unique tastes and cultural sensibilities. Curry can therefore be called a pan-Asian or global phenomenon with immense popularity in Thai, British, and Japanese cuisines.^[7]

Contents 1 Etymology 2 Indian and South Asian cuisines 2.1 Andhra or Telugu cuisine 2.2 Bengali, Bangladeshi and Oriya cuisines 2.3 Gujarati cuisine 2.4 Karnataka cuisine 2.5 Malayali cuisine 2.6 Pakistani and North Indian cuisines 2.6.1 Punjabi cuisine 2.6.2 Sindhi cuisine 2.6.3 Pashtun cuisine 2.7 Northeast Indian and Nepalese cuisines 2.8 Tamil and Sri Lankan cuisines 3 Other Asian cuisines 3.1 Chinese cuisine 3.2 Indonesian cuisine 3.3 Japanese cuisine 3.4 Southeast Asian cuisines 3.4.1 Malaysian cuisine 3.4.2 Thai cuisine 3.4.3 Vietnamese cuisine 4 Other cuisines 4.1 British cuisine 4.1.1 British curry house 4.1.2 Balti curries 4.1.3 Curry house cuisine at home 4.2 West Indies 5 Curry addiction 6 Curry powder 7 Health benefits 8 See also 9 References 10 Further reading

Etymology

Curry is derived from the Tamil word கறி kari, meaning 'sauce'.^[8]

Indian and South Asian cuisines

In other varieties of Indian cuisine, kadhi is a specific dish, made by stirring yoghurt into a roux of ghee and besan. The spices added vary, but usually include turmeric and black mustard seed. It is often eaten with rice. In India thousands of curries can be made up of vegetables and lentils only. In curry a lot of spices does not determine that it is going to be hot; the main masala (spice) is coriander (dhania powder) for digestive problems.

Andhra or Telugu cuisine

Andhra cuisine is spicy and has a unique flavour, although there are regional variations in Andhra Pradesh cuisine. Telangana in the west of Andhra Pradesh has dishes like Ambali, jonna rotte/jowar bread, sajja rotte/bread from sajja grains, and hyderabadi biryani. In this region, the curry is flavored with spices like clove, cinnamon, nutmeg, anise, and bay leaf. The coastal Andhra Pradesh has more variety in their cuisine with a large variety of curries made from vegetables and a few curries made from meat. In this region, the curry is flavored with coriander powder, cumin seeds/powder, black pepper powder, red hot chili peppers/powder, asafoetida, ghee, fenugreek seeds, curry leaves and turmeric. Even though the same vegetables are used in the curry, the coastal Andhra curry tastes completely different from the Telangana curry. This is what made the curry a concept rather than a strict recipe. It can be customized to use the local spices. The curries are mainly eaten with rice.

Bengali, Bangladeshi and Oriya cuisines

Bengali cuisine includes a plethora of curries. Seafood and fresh fish are a great favourite with Bengalis, and a large number of curries have been devised to accompany them. Mustard seeds and mustard oil are added to many recipes, as are poppy seeds.

The Oriya people have similar eating habits and are considered masters in preparing these types of curries. This is proven by the number of Oriyas employed in West Bengal as master chefs.

Gujarati cuisine

The typical Gujarati cuisine is called Thali, which consists of Roti (a flat bread made from wheat flour), daal or kadhi, bhaat (rice), and shaak (sabzi) (a dish made up of different combinations of vegetables and spices, which may be stir fried, spicy or sweet). Cuisine varies in flavour and heat, depending on taste.

Karnataka cuisine

The curries of Karnataka typically have a lot more dal than curries of other parts of India. Some typical soup dishes include Saaru, Gojju, Thovve, Huli, Majjige Huli; which is similar to the "kadi" made in the north, Sagu or Kootu, which is eaten mixed with hot rice.

Malayali cuisine

Malayali curries of Kerala typically contain shredded coconut paste or coconut milk, curry leaves, and various spices. Mustard seeds are used in almost every dish, along with onions, curry leaves, sliced red chilies fried in hot oil. Most of the non-vegetarian dishes are heavily spiced. Kerala is known for its traditional Sadya, a vegetarian meal served with boiled rice and a host of side-dishes, such as Parippu (Green gram), Papadum, some ghee, Sambar, Rasam, Aviyal, Kaalan, Kichadi, pachadi, Injipuli, Koottukari, pickles (mango, lime), Thoran, one to four types of Payasam, Boli, Olan, Pulissery, moru (buttermilk), Upperi, Banana chips, etc. The sadya is customarily served on a banana leaf.

Pakistani and North Indian cuisines

North Indian cuisine includes Mughlai cuisine, the cuisine of Kashmir, Awadhi cuisine, the cuisine of Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthani cuisine and Bhojpuri cuisine.

A favourite Pakistani curry is Karahi, which is either mutton or chicken cooked in a dry spice rub. Lahori Karahi incorporates garlic, spices and vinegar. Peshawari karahi is a simple dish made with just meat, salt, tomatoes and coriander.

Punjabi cuisine

Punjabi curries are mainly based upon masalas (spice blends), pure desi ghee, with liberal amounts of butter and cream. There are certain dishes that are exclusive to Punjab, such as Maha Di Dal and Saron Da Saag (Sarson Ka Saag).

Sindhi cuisine

Sindhi cuisine refers to the cuisine of the Sindhi people. The daily food in most Sindhi households consists of wheat-based flat-bread (phulka) and rice accompanied by two dishes, one gravy and one dry.

Pashtun cuisine

The cuisine of the Pashtun people in northwestern Pakistan is mostly identical to the cuisine of neighbouring Afghanistan, which is largely based upon cereals like wheat, maize, barley and rice. Accompanying these staples are dairy products (yoghurt, whey), various nuts, native vegetables, and fresh and dried fruits.

Northeast Indian and Nepalese cuisines

The curries of North-East India are very different from those of other parts of India. This area's cuisine has been influenced by its neighbours, namely Burma and Tibet. Well known Indian spices are used less. Yak is a popular meat in this region of India.

Dahl baht, rice and lentil soup, is a staple dish of Nepal. Newa cuisine is a type of cuisine developed over centuries by the Newars of Nepal.

Tamil and Sri Lankan cuisines

Tamil cuisine's distinctive flavour and aroma is achieved by a blend and combination of spices including curry leaves, tamarind, coriander, ginger, garlic, chili, pepper, poppy seeds, mustard seeds, cinnamon, cloves, cardamom, cumin, fennel or anise seeds, fenugreek seeds, nutmeg, coconut, turmeric root or powder, and rosewater. Lentils, vegetables and dairy products are essential accompaniments and are often served with rice. Traditionally vegetarian foods dominate the menu with a range of non-vegetarian dishes including freshwater fish and seafood cooked with traditional Tamil spices and seasoning. This holds good for all the four south Indian states.

In Sri Lankan cuisine rice, which is usually consumed daily, can be found at any special occasion; whilst spicy curries are favourite dishes for dinner and lunch. 'Rice and curry' refers to a range of Sri Lankan dishes.

Other Asian cuisines

Chinese cuisine

Chinese curries (咖哩, gā lǐ) typically consist of chicken, beef, fish, lamb, or other meats, green peppers, onions, large chunks of potatoes, and a variety of other ingredients and spices in a mildly spicy yellow curry sauce, and topped over steamed rice. White pepper, soy sauce, hot sauce, and/or hot chili oil may be applied to the sauce to enhance the flavor of the curry.

The most common Chinese variety of curry sauce is usually sold in powder form. It seems to have descended from a Singaporean and Malaysian variety, countries which also introduced the Satay sauce to the Chinese. The ethnic Cantonese (dominant in Kuala Lumpur), this yellow, Chinese-Malaysian variety was naturally introduced to China by the Cantonese, and features typically in Hong Kong cuisine. (Interestingly, the Malay Satay seems to have been introduced to China with wider success by the ethnic Teochew, who make up the second largest group of Chinese of Singapore and are the dominant group in Thailand.)

There are many different varieties of Chinese curry, depending on each restaurant. Unlike other Asian curries, which usually have a thicker consistency, Chinese curry is often watery. "Galimian," (from Malaysian "curry mee" or "curry noodles,") is also a popular Chinese curry dish.

Indonesian cuisine

In Indonesia, gulai and kari or kare are based on curry. They are often highly localised and reflect the meat and vegetables available. They can therefore employ a variety of meats (chicken, beef, water buffalo and goat as in the flavoursome "gulai kambing"), seafood (prawn, crab, mussel, clam, squid etc.), fish or vegetable dishes in a spiced sauce. They use local ingredients such as chili peppers, kaffir lime leaves, lemon grass, Galangal, Indonesian bay leaves or salam leaves, candlenuts, turmeric, turmeric leaves, asam gelugur, asam kandis, shrimp paste (terasi), cumin, coriander seed and coconut milk. One popular curry is rendang from West Sumatran cuisine. Authentic rendang uses water buffalo slow-cooked in thick coconut milk for a number of hours to tenderise and flavour the meat. In Aceh, curries use daun salam koja or daun kari (translated as "curry leaves"). Opor Ayam is another kind of curry.

Japanese cuisine

Japanese curry (カレー, karē^?) is one of the most popular dishes in Japan, where people eat it 125 times a year according to a survey made in 2005.^[9] It is usually eaten as karē raisu — curry, rice and often pickled vegetables, served on the same plate and eaten with a spoon, a common lunchtime canteen dish.

Curry was introduced to Japan by the British in the Meiji era (1869–1913) after Japan ended its policy of national self-isolation (Sakoku), and curry in Japan is categorized as a Western dish. Its spread across the country is commonly attributed to its use in the Japanese Army and Navy which adopted it extensively as convenient field and naval canteen cooking, allowing even conscripts from the remotest countryside to experience the dish. The Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force traditionally have curry every Friday for lunch and many ships have their own unique recipes.

The standard Japanese curry contains onions, carrots, potatoes, and sometimes celery, and a meat that is cooked in a large pot. Sometimes grated apples or honey are added for additional sweetness and other vegetables are sometimes used instead. For the meat, pork, beef and chicken are the most popular, in order of decreasing popularity. In northern and eastern Japan including Tokyo, pork is the most popular meat for curry. Beef is more common in western Japan, including Osaka, and in Okinawa chicken is favoured.^[10] Curry seasoning is commonly sold in the form of a condensed brick which dissolves in the mixture of meat and vegetables.

Sometimes the curry-rice is topped with breaded pork cutlet (tonkatsu); this is called Katsu-karē ("cutlet curry"). Korokke (potato croquettes) are also a common topping.

Apart from with rice, karē udon (thick noodles in curry flavoured soup) and karē-pan ("curry bread" — deep fried battered bread with curry in the middle) are also popular.

Curry was introduced to Korea by the Japanese during their occupation in the early 20th century, and is hence nearly identical to the Japanese version.

Southeast Asian cuisines

South East Asia, including countries like Cambodia Laos, Thailand, and Vietnam, and also some Southeast Asian minority groups, have their own versions of curry. Note that these countries have had many influences from Indian culture and cuisine, owing to South Asian travellers centuries before. In the cuisine of the Philippines, mostly a linear range of curry recipes could be seen. In the Philippines, a typical curry dish would be usually of either pork or chicken as the meat while cooked at a similar manner as to other local dishes such as adobo, kaldereta, and mechado with potatoes, bay leaf, and sometimes carrots to complement.

Malaysian cuisine

Being at the crossroads of ancient trade routes has left a mark on the Malaysian cuisine. While the curry may have initially found its way to Malaysian shores via the Indian population, it has since become a staple among the Malays and Chinese too. Malaysian curries differ from state to state, even within similar ethnic groupings, as they are influenced by the many factors, be it cultural, religious, agricultural or economical.

Malaysian curries typically use curry powders rich in turmeric, coconut milk, shallots, ginger, belacan (shrimp paste), chilis, and garlic. Tamarind is also often used. Rendang is another form of curry consumed in Malaysia, Singapore, and Indonesia; although it is drier and contains mostly meat and more coconut milk than a conventional Malaysian curry. Rendang was mentioned in Malay literature Hikayat Amir Hamzah^[11] (1550-an)^[12] is popular among Indonesians, Singaporeans and Malaysians. All sorts of things are curried in Malaysia, including mutton, chicken, shrimp, cuttlefish, fish, aubergines, eggs, and vegetables.

Thai cuisine

In Thai cuisine, curries are meat, fish and/or vegetable dishes in a sauce based on a paste made from of chilis, spices and herbs. They use local ingredients such as chili peppers, kaffir lime leaves, lemon grass, galangal and, in central and southern Thai cuisine, also coconut milk. Due to the use of fresh herbs, spices, and other ingredients, Thai curries tend tend to be more aromatic than Indian curries. In the West, Thai curries are often described by colour; red curries use red chilis while green curries use green chilis. Yellow curries are more similar to Indian curries, with their use of turmeric and cumin. Yellow curry is called Kaeng kari (by various spellings) in Thai, of which a word-for-word translation would be "soup curry" or "curry curry". Some dishes have curry powder added.

Thai curries:

• Yellow curry
• Massaman curry
• Green curry
• Red curry
• Panang curry
• Khao soi

Vietnamese cuisine

In Vietnam, curry is called cà ri or sometimes ca re. Certain Vietnamese curry is more soup-like than Indian curry. Curry is more common in the South, such as in Saigon and the surrounding areas. Besides rice, dipping French style bread is also a common practice when eating curry goat or chicken in these regions. Unlike curry from other countries, Vietnamese curry isn't as thick as its Indian counter parts and is a mild yellow spice.

Other cuisines

Other countries have their own varieties of curry, well known examples include:

• South Africa: Cape Malay curries
• Caribbean: Curry Goat
• Fiji, Samoa, and Tonga: Known generally as "kare" or "kale," the spice is a popular ingredient in curried lamb, mutton, and chicken stew. Often prepared with coconut milk and accompanied by rice or taro.
• Ethiopia: Wat, a thick, heavily spiced stew
• Germany: Currywurst
• Central Africa: Groundnut stew, though not technically a curry, is a similar style

Curry powder is used as an incidental ingredient in other cuisines, including for example a "curry sauce" (sauce au curry, sometimes even au cari) variation of the classic French béchamel.

British cuisine

In British cuisine, the word "curry" is primarily used to denote a sauce-based dish flavoured with curry powder or a paste made from the powder and oils. However, the use of fresh spices such as ginger and garlic, and preparation of an initial masala from freshly ground dried spices are sometimes used.

The first curry recipe in Britain appeared in The Art of Cookery made Plain and Easy by Hannah Glasse in 1747.^[13] The first edition of her book used only pepper and coriander seeds for seasoning of "currey". By the fourth edition of the book other relatively common ingredients of turmeric and ginger were used. The use of hot spices was not mentioned, which reflected the limited use of chili in India — chili plants had only been introduced into India around the late 15th century and at that time were only popular in southern India. Many curry recipes are contained in 19th century cookbooks such as those of Charles Elme Francatelli and Mrs Beeton. In Mrs Beeton's Book of Household Management, a recipe for curry powder is given that contains coriander, turmeric, cinnamon, cayenne, mustard, ginger, allspice and fenugreek; although she notes that it is more economical to purchase the powder at "any respectable shop".^[14] In 1810, the British Bengali entrepreneur Sake Dean Mahomed opened the first Indian curry house in England: the Hindoostanee Coffee House in London.^[15] According to legend, one 19th century attempt at curry resulted in the invention of Worcestershire sauce.^[16]

The popularity of curry among the general public was enhanced by the invention of "Coronation chicken" to commemorate the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II in 1953. Curry sauce (or curry gravy) is a British use of curry as a condiment, usually served warm with traditional British fast food dishes such as chips. Curry sauce occasionally would include sultanas.

The popularity of curry in the UK encouraged the growth of Indian restaurants. Until the early 1970s more than three quarters of Indian restaurants in Britain were identified as being owned and run by people of Bengali origin. Most were run by migrants from East Pakistan, which became Bangladesh in 1971. Bangladeshi restaurateurs overwhelmingly come from the northeastern division of Sylhet. Until 1998, as many as 85% of curry restaurants in the UK were British Bangladeshi restaurants^[17] but in 2003 this figure declined to just over 65%.^[18] Currently the dominance of Bangladeshi restaurants is generally declining in some parts of London and the further north one travels. In Glasgow there are more restaurants of Punjabi origin than any other.^[19]

Regardless of the ethnic origin of a restaurant's ownership, the menu will often be influenced by the wider Indian subcontinent (sometimes including Nepalese dishes), and sometimes cuisines from further afield (such as Persian dishes). Some British variations on Indian food are now being exported from the UK to India.^[20] British-style curry restaurants are also popular in Canada, Australia and New Zealand.

In a relatively short space of time curry has become an integral part of British cuisine, so much so that, since the late 1990s, Chicken Tikka Masala has been referred to as "a true British national dish".^[21] It is now available (albeit in frozen, microwavable form) on Intercity rail trains, as a flavour for crisps, and even as a pizza topping.

British curry house

Curry is eaten in almost all parts of the Indian subcontinent and outside, namely India, Bangladesh and Pakistan, it has its varying degrees of style, taste and aroma, depending on local ingredients used.

Bengalis in the UK settled in big cities with industrial employment. In London Bengalis settled in the East End. For centuries the East End has been the first port of call for many immigrants working in the docks and shipping from east Bengal. Their regular stopover paved the way for food/curry outlets to be opened up catering for an all male workforce as family migration and settlement took place some decades later.

This cuisine is characterized by the use of a common base for all the sauces to which spices are added when individual dishes are prepared. The standard "feedstock" is usually a sautéed mixture of onion, garlic and fresh ginger, to which various spices are added, depending on the recipe, but which may include: cloves, cinnamon, cardamom, chilies, peppercorns, cumin and mustard seeds. Ground coriander seed is widely used as a thickening agent, and turmeric is added for colour and its digestive qualities. Fresh or canned tomatoes and Bell Peppers are a common addition.

Better-quality restaurants will normally make up new sauces on a daily basis, using fresh ingredients wherever possible and grinding their own spices. More modest establishments are more likely to resort to frozen or dried ingredients and pre-packaged spice mixtures.

Although the names may be similar to traditional dishes, the recipes generally are not.

• Korma/kurma - mild, yellow in colour, with almond and coconut powder.
• Curry - medium, brown, gravy-like sauce.
• Biryani - Spiced rice and meat cooked together and usually served with vegetable curry sauce.
• Dupiaza/dopiaza - medium curry the word means "double onion" referring to the boiled and fried onions used as its primary ingredient.
• Pasanda - a mild curry sauce made with cream, coconut milk, and almonds or cashews.
• Roghan josh (from "roghan" (fat) and "josh" (energy/heat - which as in English may refer to either "spiciness" or temperature)) - medium, with tomatoes and paprika.
• Bhuna - medium, thick sauce, some vegetables.
• Dhansak - medium/hot, sweet and sour sauce with lentils (originally a Parsi dish). This dish often also contains pineapple.
• Madras - fairly hot curry, red in colour and with heavy use of chili powder.
• Pathia - hot, generally similar to a madras with lemon juice and tomato purée.
• Jalfrezi - onion, green chili and a thick sauce.
• Sambar - medium heat, sour curry made with lentils and lemons.
• Vindaloo - this is generally regarded as the classic "hot" restaurant curry, although a true vindaloo does not specify any particular level of spiciness. The name has European origins, derived from the Portuguese term "vinha d'alhos", a marinade containing wine ("vinho"), or sometimes vinegar, and garlic ("alho"), used to prevent the pork from going off in the heat. Some recipes include potato, misinterpreting the word "vindaloo" due to its similarity to the Hindi word aloo (potato).
• Phaal - extremely hot dish using ground chilies, ginger and fennel.

The tandoor was introduced into Britain in the 1960s and tandoori and tikka chicken became popular dishes; chicken tikka masala was said to have been invented in Glasgow.

Other dishes may be featured with varying strengths, with those of north Indian origin, such as butter chicken, tending to be mild, and recipes from the south of India tending to be hotter.

Balti curries

A style of curry thought to have been developed in Birmingham, England^[22] which has spread to other western countries is traditionally cooked and served in the same, typically cast iron pot.

Curry house cuisine at home

The popularity of curry houses in Britain has encouraged a number of publications aiming to show how the curry house cuisine, as opposed to authentic Indian cuisine, can be recreated at home. Notable publications are Kris Dhillon's book "The Curry Secret" which was first published in 1989 but has been reprinted as recently as 2008.^[23] Dhillon reports having had experience working in her own Indian-style restaurant before publishing the book.^[24] In contrast, Bruce Edwards published a short series of articles in 1990 based mostly on deduction and experiments in trying to recreate his experiences as a restaurant customer. The series consisted of three articles published in the Curry Club Magazine.^[25] Edwards published a follow-up series in the same magazine three years later, using information he had since learned from a behind-the-scenes look of an Indian take-away restaurant.^[26] Edwards' articles are still used as a reference by members of the online forum "Curry Recipes Online", where he has also informally published a few brief further follow-ups.^[27]

West Indies

In the West Indies, curry is a very popular dish. The Indian indentured servants that were brought over from India by different European powers, brought this dish, as well as their culture, to the West Indies. In Jamaica and Trinidad, curried goat is prominently featured. Curry can be found at both inexpensive and upscale Caribbean restaurants, and ingredients can range from chicken or vegetables to shellfish such as shrimp and scallops. Examples of curries in the West Indies include:

• Jamaica: Especially curried chicken, goat, fish and shrimp
• Trinidad and Tobago: Most notably curried chicken, goat, shrimp, and curry aloo
• Guyana: Chicken Curry, Goat Curry, Duck Curry, Shrimp Curry, Beef Curry (eaten by Muslims), Aloo Curry, Fish (different varieties of fish) Curry, etc.

Curry addiction

A number of studies have claimed that the reaction of pain receptors to the hotter ingredients in curries leads to the body's release of endorphins and, with the complex sensory reaction to the variety of spices and flavours, a natural high is achieved that causes subsequent cravings, often followed by a desire to move on to hotter curries. Some refer to this as addiction, but other researchers contest the use of the word "addiction" in this instance.^[28]

Curry powder

Curry powder, also known as masala powder, is a spice mixture of widely varying composition developed by the British during the days of the Raj as a means of approximating the taste of Indian cuisine at home. Masala refers to spices, and this is the name given to the thick and pasty sauce based on a combination of spices with ghee (clarified butter), butter, palm oil or coconut milk. Most commercial curry powders available in Britain, the U.S. and Canada, rely heavily on ground turmeric, in turn producing a very yellow sauce. Lesser ingredients in these Western yellow curry powders are often coriander, cumin, fenugreek, mustard, chili, black pepper and salt. It should be reiterated that curry powders and pastes produced and consumed in India are extremely diverse; some red, some yellow, some brown; some with five spices and some with as many as 20 or more. Besides the previously mentioned spices, other commonly found spices in different curry powders in India are allspice, white pepper, ground mustard, ground ginger, cinnamon, roasted cumin, cloves, nutmeg, mace, green cardamom seeds or black cardamom pods, bay leaves and coriander seeds.

Health benefits

Some studies have shown that ingredients in curry may help to prevent certain diseases, including colon cancer and Alzheimer's disease.^[29][30]

See also

• Rice and curry
• The Curry Club
• Curry chicken
• Cuisine of Trinidad and Tobago
• Wrap roti
• South Asian cuisine
• Indian cuisine

References

Further reading

• Curry Club Indian Restaurant Cookbook, Piatkus, London — ISBN 0861883780 & ISBN 0861884884 (1984 to 2009)
• K.T. Achaya. A Historical Dictionary of Indian Food (Delhi: Oxford University Press) 1998
• Pat Chapman India: Food & Cooking, New Holland, London — ISBN 978-1845376192 (2007)
• Indian Food: A Historical Companion]. (Delhi: Oxford University Press) 1994
• New Curry Bible, republished by John Blake Publishers ISBN 9781843581598 (2005)
• David Burton. The Raj at Table (London: Faber & Faber) 1993
• Pat Chapman’s Curry Bible, Hodder & St — ISBN 0340680377 & ISBN 0340680377 & ISBN 0340 68562 X & ISBN 034068562X (1997)
• E.M. Collingham. Curry: A biography (London: Chatto & Windus) 2005
• Madhur Jaffrey. An Invitation to Indian Cooking (London: Penguin) 1975
• Petit Plats Curry, Hachette Marabout, Paris — ISBN 2501033086 (2000)