Rwanda

Republic of Rwanda Repubulika y'u Rwanda République du Rwanda Motto: Ubumwe, Umurimo, Gukunda Igihugu "Unity, Work, Patriotism" Anthem: "Rwanda nziza" Capital (and largest city) Kigali Official language(s) Kinyarwanda, French, English Demonym Rwandan, Rwandese Government Republic  -  President Paul Kagame  -  Prime Minister Bernard Makuza Independence from Belgium   -  Date July 1, 1962  Area  -  Total 26,338 km2 (147th) 10,169 sq mi   -  Water (%) 5.3 Population  -  January 2010 estimate 10,746,311[1] (80th)  -  2010 census 11,395,210[2]   -  Density 401.4/km2 (29th) 1,029.9/sq mi GDP (PPP) 2009 estimate  -  Total $11.260 billion[3]   -  Per capita $1,148[3]  GDP (nominal) 2009 estimate  -  Total $5.246 billion[3]   -  Per capita $535[3]  Gini (2003) 41.1 (medium)  HDI (2007) 0.460 (low) (167th) Currency Rwandan franc (RWF) Time zone CAT (UTC+2)  -  Summer (DST) not observed (UTC+2) Drives on the right Internet TLD .rw Calling code 250 1 Estimates for this country explicitly take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population and growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex. Map of Rwanda

The Republic of Rwanda (English pronunciation: /ruːˈændə/ roo-AN-də or /rəˈwɑːndə/ rə-WAHN-də; Kinyarwanda pronunciation [ɾwanda] or IPA: [ɾɡwanda]), known as the Land of a Thousand Hills, is a landlocked country located in the Great Lakes region of eastern-central Africa, bordered by Uganda, Burundi, the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Tanzania.

Although close to the equator, the country has a cool temperate climate due to its high elevation. The terrain consists mostly of grassy uplands and gently rolling hills. Abundant wildlife, including rare mountain gorillas, have resulted in tourism becoming one of the biggest sectors of the country's economy.

Rwanda has received considerable international attention due to its 1994 genocide, in which an estimated 800,000 people were killed.^[4] Since then, the country has made a recovery and is now considered as a model for developing countries. In 2009, a CNN report labeled Rwanda as Africa's biggest success story, having achieved stability, economic growth (average income has tripled in the past ten years) and international integration.^[5] In 2007, Fortune magazine published an article titled "Why CEOs Love Rwanda."^[6] The capital, Kigali, is the first city in Africa to be awarded the Habitat Scroll of Honor Award in the recognition of its "cleanliness, security and urban conservation model."^[7] In 2008, Rwanda became the first country to elect a national legislature in which a majority of members were women.^[8] Rwanda joined the Commonwealth of Nations on 29 November 2009 as its fifty-fourth member,^[9] making the country one of only two in the Commonwealth without a British colonial past.^[10]

History

It is not known when the territory of present day Rwanda was first inhabited, but it is thought that humans moved into the area following the last ice age either in the Neolithic period, around ten thousand years ago, or in the long humid period which followed, up to around 3000 BC.^[11][12] Archaeological excavations have revealed evidence of sparse settlement by hunter gatherers in the late stone age, followed by a larger population of early Iron Age settlers, who produced dimpled pottery and iron tools.^[11][13][14] These early inhabitants were the ancestors of the Twa, a group of aboriginal Pygmy hunter-gatherers, who still live in Rwanda today.^[11] At some point between 700 BC and 1 AD, these settlers were joined by Bantu farmers from the west, known as Hutus.^[11][15] The Hutus, with their sedentary farming lifestyle, soon outnumbered the Twas and began to take over their traditional hunting grounds, forcing them to retreat into the forests.^[16] Later a third group, the cattle-raising Tutsi, migrated to the area. The Tutsi were generally taller than the Hutus and the Twas, and were distinct in physical appearance.^[16][17] It is not known when the Tutsi arrived and from where they came, but there is evidence that they were of Cushitic origin, coming from the Horn of Africa.^[17] Over time, the distinction between the three groups became blurred and some sources question whether they are truly of separate racial or ethnic stock.^[18]

According to oral history the Kingdom of Rwanda was founded in the 14th or 15th centuries on the shores of Lake Muhazi in the Buganza and Bwanacyambwe regions.^[19][20][21] At that time it was a small state in a loose confederation with larger and more powerful neighbours, Bugesera and Gisaka.^[22] By playing these neighbours against each other, the early kingdom flourished in the area, expanding westwards towards Lake Kivu.^[23] In this expanded kingdom, the Buganza region became a powerful religious site, being synonymous with the earliest and most revered mwamis of the kingdom.^[24] In the late 16th or early 17th centuries, the kingdom of Rwanda was invaded by the Banyoro and the kings forced to flee westward, leaving the eastern area in the hands of Bugesera and Gisaka.^[20][22] The formation in the 17th century of a new Rwandan dynasty by mwami Ruganzu Ndori, followed by eastward invasions, the retaking of Buganza and the conquest of Bugesera, marked the beginning of the Rwandan kingdom's dominance in the area.^[25] At its peak, the Kingdom of Rwanda extended west and north into what is now the DRC and Uganda, reaching the shores of Lake Edward.^[26]

The colonial era in Rwanda began in 1884 when the territory of Ruanda-Urundi was assigned to Germany by the Berlin Conference, being united with Tanganyika to form German East Africa.^[27] Gustav Adolf von Götzen became the first European to significantly explore the country in 1894, crossing from the south-west to Lake Kivu and meeting the Mwami.^[28] In the following years, German missionaries and a small number of military personnel began to arrive in the country and a Resident was established.^[29] The Germans did not significantly alter the societal structure of the country, but exerted some influence by supporting the Mwami and the existing hierarchy and by placing advisers at the courts of local chiefs.^[30] They also observed and perpetuated the ethnic divisions of the country, favouring the Tutsi as the ruling class and aiding the monarchy in putting down rebellions of Hutus not wishing to submit to central Tutsi control.^[30] In 1916, during World War I, Germany lost control of Ruanda-Urundi to Belgian forces. In 1919, the territory was declared a League of Nations mandate with Belgium being asked to govern.^[30] The Belgian involvement was far more direct than the German, and extended the coloniser's interests into education, health, public works, and agricultural supervision; the last was especially important with improved techniques reducing the incidence of famine.^[31] Belgium also maintained the existing class system, promoting Tutsi supremacy and disenfranchising the Hutus by subjugating their northwest kingdoms into the Mwami's central control.^[32] The Belgian authorities considered the Hutus and Tutsis different races and, in 1935, introduced identity cards labelling each individual as either Tutsi, Hutu, or Twa. This classification was often based arbitrarily on physical characteristics; borderline cases were decided on cattle ownership with those owning ten or more cattle labelled Tutsi and others as Hutu.^[33]

Juvénal Habyarimana, Rwanda's president from 1973 to 1994

Rwanda's establishment as a UN Trust Territory under Belgian administration in 1945, coupled with a wave of Pan-Africanism across the continent, started the colony's move towards independence.^[34] The 1950s saw two movements develop—the Tutsi elite, who favoured early independence under the existing system,^[35][36] and the Hutu emancipation movement led by Grégoire Kayibanda, which sought an end to "Tutsi feudalism".^[37] The Tutsi movement received support in its quest for independence from the Communist bloc, which led the Belgians to dramatically drop their long-standing support and favour the Hutu.^[38] Tension between the two groups escalated throughout the decade, culminating in November 1959 when the beating up of Dominique Mbonyumutwa, a Hutu politician, and false news of his death sparked a violent backlash against the Tutsi known as the wind of destruction.^[39] During the following years, hundreds of Tutsi were killed, and more than 100,000 were exiled into neighbouring countries.^[40] Under the stewardship of the pro-Hutu Belgian colonel Guy Logiest, democratic elections were held and a referendum was passed, abolishing the monarchy and establishing a republic. Rwanda was separated from Burundi and gained independence under Kayibanda in 1962.^[41] The following years were characterised by cycles of attacks by rebel Tutsis in exile and large scale slaughter and repression of Tutsis within Rwanda.^[42] In 1973, Juvenal Habyarimana became president in a bloodless coup, claiming the government had become too corrupt, ineffective, and violent.^[43] In the years following the coup, Rwanda enjoyed relative economic prosperity and violence against Tutsis reduced, although pro-Hutu discrimination continued.^[44]

In 1990, the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF), a rebel group composed mostly of Tutsi refugees, invaded northern Rwanda from Uganda, initiating the Rwandan Civil War.^[45] The Rwandan government, supported by troops from France,^[46] was initially successful in suppressing the rebels but the RPF grew in strength and by 1992 a stalemate had developed.^[47] Despite continuing ethnic strife, including the displacement of large numbers of Hutu in the north by the rebels and periodic localized extermination of Tutsi to the south, pressure on the Habyarimana's government resulted in a cease-fire in 1993 and the negotiation of a peace settlement in Arusha, Tanzania.^[48] The cease-fire ended on 6 April when Habyarimana's plane was shot down near Kigali Airport, killing the president and his Burundian counterpart. It is still unknown who launched the attack, with each side blaming the other.^[49] The shooting down of the plane served as the trigger for the Rwandan Genocide, which began within a few hours. Over the course of approximately 100 days, between 500,000 and 1,000,000^[50] Tutsis and politically moderate Hutus were killed in apparently well-planned attacks on the orders of the interim government under the de facto control of Theoneste Bagosora.^[51] The Tutsi RPF quickly restarted their offensive, and took control of the country in a slow and methodical manner, cutting off government supply routes and taking advantage of the deteriorating social order.^[52] The international response was limited, with the major powers reluctant to strengthen the already overstretched UN peacekeeping force.^[53] France eventually sent troops through Operation Turquoise, but this was controversial and came too late to make a difference.^[54] The RPF took control of Kigali on 4 July and the whole country by 18 July 1994. A transitional government was sworn in with Pasteur Bizimungu as president.^[55]

The new regime faced immediate problems, with approximately two million Hutus having fled to neighbouring countries, in particular Zaire, fearing RPF reprisals for the genocide.^[56] Thousands of these died in epidemics of diseases common to the squalor of refugee camps, such as cholera.^[57] The United States staged the Operation Support Hope airlift from July to September 1994 to stabilize the situation in the camps.^[58] From 1996, rising tension in eastern Zaire forced most refugees to return to Rwanda; this tension, coupled with guerrilla incursions by interhamwe militia into Rwanda fueled the country's involvement in the First and Second Congo Wars.^[59] A period of reconciliation and justice began, with the establishment of the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) and the reintroduction of a traditional village court system known as Gacaca.^[60] During the 2000s, the flag, anthem, and constitution were replaced, local authority boundaries were re-drawn, the economy and tourist numbers grew rapidly, and membership of the East African Community and Commonwealth was attained.^[61][62]

Politics and government

Rwandan President Paul Kagame

Rwanda's political system is that of a presidential republic, based upon a multi-party system.^[63] The current constitution was adopted following a national referendum in 2003, replacing a transitional set of documents known as the Fundamental Law and providing a coalition government, which had been in place since the RPF military victory in 1994.^[64] The President of Rwanda is the head of state and has broad, unilateral powers to create policy, administer government agencies, exercise the prerogative of mercy, command the armed forces, negotiate and ratify treaties, sign presidential orders and declare war or a state of emergency.^[65] The president is selected by popular vote every seven years. The incumbent is Paul Kagame, who took office under the transitional government arrangements in 2000 and won elections in 2003 and 2010.^[66][67]

Rwanda is relatively corruption free; in 2008, Transparency International ranked Rwanda as the joint 102nd most corrupt out of 180 countries in the world, and 20th out of 53 in Africa.^[68] The constitution provides for an Ombudsman, whose duties include prevention and fighting of corruption, and public officials (including the President) are required to declare their wealth.^[69][70] Under the rule of the current government, Rwanda has experienced high growth rates and a rise in infrastructure and international investment and tourism.^[71] However, the government has also been criticised by some opposition figures and human rights groups for suppressing dissent in the country, particularly in the periods leading up to elections.^[67][72]

The Parliament, which consists of two chambers, makes legislation. The Chamber of Deputies has 80 members serving five year terms. Twenty four of these seats are reserved for women, elected through a joint assembly of local government officials. Another three seats are reserved for youth and disabled members, with the remaining 53 are elected by universal suffrage under a proportional representation system.^[73] Following the 2008 election, there are 45 female Deputies, 56% of the total, making Rwanda the only country with a female majority parliament.^[74] The 26-seat Senate is the upper chamber, selected by a variety of bodies, and including a mandatory 30% women. Senators serve eight-year terms.^[75]

Rwanda's legal system is largely based on based on German and Belgian civil law systems and customary law.^[76] The judiciary is independent of the executive, although the president and the Senate are involved in the appointment of Supreme Court judges, and the courts sometimes face pressure from the government.^[77][78] The constitution provides for two types of court - ordinary and specialised.^[79] Ordinary courts consist of the Supreme Court, the High Court and regional courts, while specialised courts are military courts and Gacaca courts, a traditional system which has been revived to expedite the trials of genocide suspects.^[80]

President Kagame's Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF) has been the dominant political party in the country since 1994. The RPF have maintained control of the presidency and the Parliament in national elections, with the party's vote share consistently exceeding 70%. The RPF is seen as a Tutsi-dominated party but receives support from across the community, and is credited with ensuring continued peace and stability.^[81] Human rights organisations allege, however, that the government suppresses the freedoms of opposition groups by restricting candidacies in elections to government-friendly parties, suppressing demonstrations and arresting opposition leaders and journalists.^[82][83]

Rwanda is a member of La Francophonie, but is increasingly distancing itself from the French language, with English becoming the predominant international language in use.^[84][85] This process is manifesting itself in the country's joining the Commonwealth of Nations and a government decision to switch from French to English as the language of tuition in all schools.^[62][85] Rwanda is also seeking closer ties with neighbouring countries in East Africa, having joined the East African Community in 2007.^[86] Relations with the Democratic Republic of Congo remain tense, following Rwanda's involvement in the First and Second Congo Wars.^[59] The Congolese army alleging Rwandan attacks on their troops, while Rwanda blames the Congolese government for failing to suppress Hutu rebels in North and South Kivu provinces.^[87][88]

Administrative divisions

Rwanda is divided into five provinces (intara) and subdivided into thirty districts (akarere). The provinces are:

• Northern Province
• Eastern Province
• Southern Province
• Western Province
• Kigali Province

Prior to 1 January 2006, Rwanda was composed of twelve provinces (known as prefectures up to 2001), but these were abolished in full and redrawn as part of a program of decentralization and reorganization.

Geography and climate

The confluence of the Kagera and Ruvubu rivers in south-eastern Rwanda, part of the upper Nile river.

At 26,338 square kilometres (10,169 sq mi), Rwanda is the world's 148th-largest country.^[89] It is comparable in size to Haiti and the U.S. State of Maryland, and a little larger than Wales.^[1][90] The country is located in Central and East Africa, a few degrees south of the Equator and is landlocked.^[91] The country neighbours the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the west; Uganda to the north; Tanzania to the east; and Burundi to the south.^[1] The capital, Kigali, is located in the centre of the country.^[92]

Central and western Rwanda is dominated by mountains, with the Albertine branch of the Great Rift Valley running from north to south along the country's western border.^[93] The highest peaks are found in the Virunga chain of volcanoes in the north-west, including Mount Karisimbi, Rwanda's highest point at 4,507 metres (14,787 ft).^[94] This western section of the country, which lies within the Albertine Rift montane forests ecoregion,^[95] has an average elevation ranging between 1,500 metres (4,921 ft) and 2,500 metres (8,202 ft).^[11] The eastern slopes are more moderate, with rolling hills extending across central uplands at gradually reducing altitudes, to the plains and swamps of the eastern border region.^[11] Rwanda is also noted for its lakes. Lake Kivu is the largest, occupying the floor of the Rift Valley along most of the length of Rwanda's western border and is one of the twenty deepest lakes in the world with a maximum depth of 480 metres (1,575 ft).^[96] Other notable lakes include Burera, Ruhondo, Muhazi, Rweru and Ihema, the last being the largest of a string of lakes in the eastern plains of Akagera National Park.^[97]

The watershed between the major drainage basins of the Congo and the Nile runs from north to south through Rwanda, with around 80% of the country's area draining into the Nile and 20% into the Congo, via the Ruzizi River and Lake Tanganyika.^[98] The country's longest river is the Nyabarongo, which rises in the south-west, flows north, east and south-east before merging with the Ruvubu to form the Kagera, which flows due north along the eastern border with Tanzania. The Nyabarongo-Kagera eventually drains into Lake Victoria, and its source in Nyungwe Forest is a contender for the overall source of the Nile.^[99]

Rwanda has a temperate tropical highland climate, with lower temperatures than is typical for equatorial countries due to the high altitude.^[91] In Rubona, in the centre of the country, daily temperatures typically range between 14 °C (57 °F) and 25 °C (77 °F) and there is little variation through the year.^[100] There is, however, some variation across the country with the mountainous west being generally cooler than the lower lying east.^[101] There are two rainy seasons in the year, from February to June and from September to December. These are separated by two dry seasons: the major one from June to September, during which there is often no rain at all, and a shorter and less reliable one from December to February.^[102] Rainfall also varies geographically, with twice as much average annual precipitation in the west as in the east.^[103]

Economy and infrastructure

Coffee, such as this bag of Maraba Coffee, is one of Rwanda's major cash crops.

Rwanda's economy suffered heavily during the 1994 genocide, with widespread loss of life, failure to maintain the infrastructure, looting and neglect of important cash crops causing a large drop in GDP and destroying the country's ability to attract private and external investment.^[1] The country has since strengthened, with per-capita GDP (PPP) estimated at $951 in 2008,^[104] compared with just $390 in 1994.^[105] Major export markets include China, Germany and the United States.^[1] The currency is the Rwandan franc and the economy is managed by the central National Bank of Rwanda, although Rwanda recently joined the East African Community and there are plans for a common East African shilling, which could be in place by 2010.^[106]

Rwanda is a country of few natural resources, and the economy is based mostly on semi-subsistence agriculture by local farmers using simple tools.^[107] An estimated 90% of the working population farms, and agriculture comprised an estimated 39.4% of GDP in 2006.^[1] Since the mid 1980s, farm sizes and food production have been decreasing, due in part to the resettlement of displaced people.^[108][109] Thus despite Rwanda's fertile ecosystem, food production often does not keep pace with population growth, requiring food imports.^[1] Crops grown in the country include coffee, tea, pyrethrum, bananas, beans, sorghum and potatoes. Coffee and tea are the major cash crops for export, with the high altitudes, steep slopes and volcanic soils providing favourable conditions. Reliance on agricultural exports makes Rwanda vulnerable to shifts in their prices.^[110]

The mountain gorilla is Rwanda's leading tourist attraction

Livestock are raised throughout the country, with animal husbandry contributing around 8.8% of GDP in 2006.^[111] Animals raised in Rwanda include cows, goats, sheep, pigs, chicken and rabbits, with geographical variation in the numbers of each.^[111] Production systems are mostly traditional, although there are a few intensive dairy farms around Kigali.^[111] Shortage of land, water shortage, insufficient and poor quality feed and regular disease epidemics with insufficient veterinary service are major constraints, restricting output in this sector. Fishing takes place on the country's lakes, but stocks are very depleted and live fish are now being imported in an attempt to revive the industry.^[112]

The industrial sector is small and uncompetitive.^[113] Products manufactured include cement, agricultural products, small-scale beverages, soap, furniture, shoes, plastic goods, textiles, cigarettes.^[1] Despite being a landlocked country of few natural resources, Rwanda's mining industry is an important contributor, generating US$93 million in 2008.^[114] Minerals mined include cassiterite, wolfram, and gold and coltan, which is used in the manufacture of electronic and communication devices such as mobile phones.^[114][115]

Tourism is one of the fastest growing sectors and is now the country's leading foreign exchange earner, generating US$214 million in 2008, up by 54% on the previous year.^[116] Despite the genocide, the country is increasingly perceived internationally as a safe destination,^[117] and one million people are estimated to have visited the country in 2008, up from 826,374 in 2007.^[116] The country's most popular tourist activity is the tracking of mountain gorillas, which takes place in the Volcanoes National Park.^[118] Other attractions include Nyungwe Forest, home to chimpanzees, Ruwenzori colobus and other primates,^[119] the resorts of Lake Kivu,^[120] and Akagera, a small savanna reserve in the east of the country.^[121]

The largest radio and television stations are state-run, with Radio Rwanda being the main source of news throughout the country. Most Rwandans have access to radio, whereas television is restricted mostly to urban areas.^[122] The press is tightly restricted and newspapers routinely self-censor to avoid government reprisals.^[122] Restrictions have been increased in the run-up to the August 2010 elections, with two independent newspapers, Umuseso and Umuvugizi, being suspended for six months by the High Media Council.^[123]

A large amount of investment in the transport infrastructure of Rwanda has been made by the government since the 1994 genocide, with aid from the USA, European Union, Japan and others. The transport system centres primarily around the road network, with paved roads between the capital, Kigali and most other major cities and towns in the country.^[124] Rwanda is also linked by road to other countries in East Africa, notably to the port of Mombasa via Kampala and Nairobi, which provides Rwanda's most important trade route.^[125] The principal form of public transport in the country is share taxi, with express routes linking the major cities and local services serving most villages along the main roads of the country. Coach services are available to various destinations in neighbouring countries. The country has an international airport at Kigali, serving one domestic and several international destinations.^[102][126] The country has no railways at present, although funding has been secured for a feasibility study into extending the Tanzanian Central Line into Rwanda.^[127] There is no public water transport between the port cities on Lake Kivu, although a limited private service exists.^[128]

Demographics

Most Rwandans speak Kinyarwanda, one of the country's three official languages, and in market towns many people speak Swahili. Educated Rwandans speak French. In 2008 the Rwandan government announced that English would receive official recognition. This change was initiated to ensure further integration with the east-African economic community. Rwanda was admitted in November 2009 to membership of the Commonwealth of Nations.^[129]

Religion

Most Rwandans are Christian, with significant changes since the genocide.

Rural children.

A 2006 study reported that 56.5 percent of the population were Catholic (with a 6.9% increase since the 2001 survey), 37.1 percent Protestant (of which 11.1 percent are Seventh Day Adventists, and 14,000 Jehovah's Witnesses), 4.6 percent Muslim, 1.7 claimed no religious beliefs, and 0.1 percent practiced traditional indigenous beliefs.^[131]

Figures from 2001 survey were 49.6 % Catholic, 43.9 % Protestant, 4.6 % Muslim, 1.7 % no religious beliefs, and 0.1 % traditional indigenous beliefs. This represented a 19.9 percent increase in the number of Protestants, a 7.6 percent drop in the number of Catholics, and a 3.5 percent increase in the number of Muslims from the U.N. Population Fund survey in 1996.

There has been a proliferation of small, usually Christian-linked schismatic religious groups since the 1994 Genocide.^[130] The figures for Protestants include the growing number of members of Jehovah's Witnesses and evangelical Protestant groups. There also is a small population of Baha'is and Jews.^[132][133]

The Muslim community may have grown in part because Muslims are reported to have saved the lives of many Tutsis from Hutu attacks.^[134][135] Some estimate the Muslim population of the country to be as high as 14%.^{[122][134][135][136]}

Health

Fertility is at about six births per woman.^[137] HIV prevalence was at about 3 % of the 15-49 year olds in 2005.^[137] Public expenditure was at 4.3 % of the GDP in 2004, whereas private expenditure was 3.2 %.^[137] There were 5 physicians per 100,000 people in 2000-2004.^[137] Infant mortality was at 118 per 1,000 live births in 2005.^[137]

Culture

Traditional Rwandan Intore dancers

Unlike many countries in Africa, Rwanda has been a unified state since pre-colonial times with only one ethnic group, the Banyarwanda, and a shared cultural heritage.^[138] Eleven regular national holidays are observed throughout the year, with others occasionally inserted by the government.^[139] Additionally, the week following Genocide Memorial Day on 7th April is designated an official week of mourning.^[140] The last Saturday of each month is umuganda, a national day of community service, during which most normal services close down.^[141]

Music and dance are an integral part of Rwandan ceremonies, festivals, social gatherings, and storytelling.^[142] The most famous traditional dance is Intore, a highly choreographed routine consisting of three components - the ballet, performed by women, the dance of heroes, performed by men, and the drums.^[143] Traditionally, music is transmitted orally with styles varying between the social groups. Drums are of great importance, the royal drummers having enjoyed high status within the court of the mwami. Drummers usually play together in groups of seven or nine.^[142] The country has a growing popular music industry, influenced by East African, Congolese and American music. The most popular genre is hip hop, with a blend of rap with ragga, R&B and dance-pop.^[144] Popular local artists include The Ben and Meddy, both of whom have won awards.^[145]

Beer is drunk from containers such as this at rituals and ceremonies

The cuisine of Rwanda is based on local staple foods produced by the traditional subsistence-level agriculture and has historically varied between the country's different ethnic groups.^[146] Rwandan staples include bananas, plantains (known as ibitoke), pulses, sweet potatoes, beans, and cassava (manioc).^[146] Many Rwandans do not eat meat more than a few times a month.^[146] For those that live near lakes and have access to fish, tilapia is popular.^[146] The potato, thought to have been introduced to Rwanda by German and Belgian colonialists, is now also very popular.^[147] Ugali (or bugali) is a paste made from cassava or maize and water, to form a porridge-like consistency that is eaten throughout East Africa.^[148] Isombe is made from mashed cassava leaves and served with dried fish.^[147] Lunch is usually a buffet known as melange, consisting of the above staples and possibly meat.^[149] Brochettes are the most popular food when eating out in the evening, usually made from goat but sometimes tripe, beef or fish.^[149] In rural areas, many bars have a brochette seller responsible for tending and slaughtering the goats, skewering and barbecuing the meat and serving it with grilled bananas.^[150] Milk, particularly in a fermented form called ikivuguto, is a common drink throughout the country.^[151] Other drinks include a traditional beer called urwagwa, made from sorghum or bananas which features in traditional rituals and ceremonies.^[147] Commercial beers brewed in Rwanda include Primus, Mützig and Amstel.^[148]

Traditional arts and crafts are produced throughout the country, although most originated as functional items rather than purely for decoration.^[152] Woven baskets and bowls are especially common.^[153] The south east of Rwanda is noted for imigongo, a unique cow dung art, whose history dates back to when the region was part of the independent Gisaka kingdom. The dung is mixed with natural soils of various colours and painted into patterned ridges, forming geometric shapes.^[154] Other crafts include pottery and wood carving.^[152] Traditional housing styles make use of locally available materials, with circular or rectangular mud homes with grass-thatch rooves the most common. The government has a programme to replace these with more modern materials such as corrugated iron.^[155][156]

Rwanda does not have a long history of written literature, but there is a strong oral tradition ranging from poetry to folk stories. Many of the country's moral values and details of history have been passed down through the generations. The most famous Rwandan literary figure was Alexis Kagame (1912 – 1981), who carried out and published research into the oral tradition as well as writing his own poetry.^[142] A number of films have been produced about the genocide, including the Golden Globe nominated Hotel Rwanda and Shooting Dogs, which was filmed in Rwanda itself, and featured survivors in the cast.^[157]

Education

Pupils at a Rwandan secondary school

The Rwandan government provides free education in state-run schools for nine years - six years in primary school and three years following a common secondary school programme.^[158] The government plans to extend free education to cover the final three secondary years by 2015.^[158] Despite this, however, many poorer children still fail to attend school due to the necessity of purchasing uniforms and books and commitments at home.^[159] There are also many private schools across the country, some church-run, which follow the same syllabus but charge fees.^[159] A very small number offer international qualifications. From 1994 until 2009, secondary education was offered in either French or English; due to the country's increasing ties with the East African Community and the Commonwealth, only the English syllabuses are now offered.^[85] The country has a number of higher education establishments, with the National University of Rwanda (UNR), Kigali Institute of Science and Technology (KIST) and Kigali Institute of Education (KIE) being the most prominent.^[159]

International rankings

See also

• Rwandan Genocide
• International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda
• Transport in Rwanda
• Rwandan parliamentary election, 2008
• Youth village

Notes

References

External links

Government

• The Republic of Rwanda official government site
• Chief of State and Cabinet Members

General

• Rwanda entry at The World Factbook
• Rwanda from UCB Libraries GovPubs
• Rwanda at the Open Directory Project
• Wikimedia Atlas of Rwanda
• Star of the Continent, Haaretz

Travel

• Rwanda Tourism official Rwanda Tourism Board site
• Airline web site UK
• Rwanda travel guide from Wikitravel

Film

• Gacaca Film Series Official site for the documentary film series that includes "My Neighbor My Killer" (Official Selection at Cannes Film Festival), "Gacaca Living Together in Rwanda?," "In Rwanda We Say...The family that does not speak dies" and "The Notebooks of Memory" By Emmy-winner Anne Aghion

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