Beechcraft Model 18

Model 18
Instructor and pilot in a Beechcraft AT-7 doing navigation training at Kelly Field, TX.
Role Trainer & Utility aircraft
National origin United States
Manufacturer Beech Aircraft Corporation
First flight 15 January 1937
Introduced 1937
Primary users United States Army
United States Navy
Royal Air Force
Produced 1937-1970
Number built More than 9,000 of 32 variants built
Unit cost 1952 D18S $78,050.00 (USD)[1]
Beech 18 on floats in Manitoba, 1986
Beechcraft AT-11 over the west Texas prairies, c. 1944.
Private Beech H18 with the optional tricycle undercarriage visiting Lannion, France.

The Beechcraft Model 18, or "Twin Beech", as it was better known, is a 6-11 place,[2] twin-engine, low-wing, conventional-gear aircraft that was manufactured by the Beech Aircraft Corporation of Wichita, Kansas. This model saw military service during and after World War II in a number of versions including the United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) C-45 Expeditor, AT-7 Navigator, AT-11 Kansan; and for the United States Navy (USN), UC-45J Navigator and the SNB-1 Kansan.

The Beech 18 is the most modified U.S.-certified aircraft design, with over 200 Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) approved Supplemental Type Certificates (STCs) on record for the aircraft.

The aircraft's uses have included aerial spraying, sterile bug release, fish seeding, dry ice cloud seeding, aerial firefighting, airborne mail pick up and drop, ambulance service, numerous movie productions, skydiving, freight, gun- and drug-smuggling, engine test bed, skywriting and banner towing. A number of Model 18s were operated as passenger aircraft; the Model 18 was the first aircraft flown by Philippine Airlines, Asia's first and oldest airline. Many are now in private hands as prized collectibles.

Contents

Design and development

By the late 1930s, Beechcraft management speculated that a demand would exist for a new design dubbed the Model 18 which would have a military application, and increased the main production facilities. The design was mainly conventional for the time, including twin radial engines, all-metal semi-monocoque construction with fabric covered control surfaces and "taildragger" undercarriage, while less common were the twin tail fins. Upon an immediate glance they can be mistaken for the larger Lockheed Electra series of airliners which closely resemble the Model 18. Early production aircraft were either powered by two 330 hp (250 kW) Jacobs L-6s or 350 hp (260 kW) Wright R-760Es. The 450 hp (336 kW) Pratt & Whitney R-985 became the definitive engine from the prewar C18S onwards. The Beech 18 prototype first flew on 15 January 1937.

At the time of the Pearl Harbor attack, the Beech 18 was outsold by the Lockheed 12 by 2-to-1. However, war priorities forced Lockheed to concentrate on its heavier aircraft, and Beechcraft received a major boost through wartime contracts surrendered by Lockheed.

The aircraft has used a variety of engines and has had a number of airframe modifications to increase gross weight and speed. At least one aircraft was modified to a 600 hp (447 kW) Pratt & Whitney R-1340 powerplant configuration. With the added weight of approximately 200 lb (91 kg) per engine, the concept of a Model 18 fitted with R-1340 engines was deemed unsatisfactory due to the weakest structural area of the aircraft being the engine mounts. With the exception of the center truss (the central component around which the entire aircraft is built), nearly every airframe component has been modified at one time or another.

In 1955 deliveries of the Model E18S commenced; the E18S featured a fuselage that was extended 6 inches (150 mm) higher for more headroom in the passenger cabin. All later Beech 18s (sometimes called Super 18s) featured this taller fuselage and some earlier models (including one AT-11) have been modified to this larger fuselage. The Model H18, introduced in 1963, featured optional tricycle undercarriage. Unusually, the undercarriage was developed for earlier-model aircraft under an STC by Volpar, and installed in H18s at the factory during manufacture. A total of 109 H18s were built with tricycle undercarriage, and another 240 earlier-model aircraft were modified with the undercarriage.[3][4]

Construction of the Beechcraft Model 18 ended in 1970 with the last, a Model H18, going to Japan Airlines. Beechcraft set a record that still stands today for longest continuous production of a piston engine aircraft. Through the years, 32 variations of the basic design had flown, over 200 improvement modification kits were developed, and almost 8,000 aircraft had been built. Some aircraft were almost unrecognizable as having originated as a Beech 18. In one case the aircraft was modified to a triple tail, tri-gear, hump backed configuration and appeared similar to a miniature Lockheed Constellation. Another distinctive conversion was carried out by PacAero as the Tradewind. This featured a lengthened nose to accommodate tricycle undercarriage, and the Model 18's twin tails replaced with a single fin.[5]

Operational history

Production got an early boost when Nationalist China paid the company US$750,000 for six M18R light bombers,[6] but by the time of the U.S. entry into World War II, only 39 Model 18s had been sold, of which 29 were for civilian customers.[3][7] Work began in earnest on a variant specifically for training military pilots, bombardiers and navigators. The effort resulted in the Army AT-7 and Navy SNB. Further development led to the AT-11 and SNB-2 navigation trainers and the C-45 military transport. The United States Air Force Strategic Air Command had Beechcraft Model 18 (AT-11 Kansans, C-45 Expeditors, F-2 Expeditors (the "F" standing for "Fotorecon"), and UC-45 Expeditors) from 1946 until 1951. From 1951 to 1955 the USAF had many of its aircraft remanufactured with new fuselages, wing centre sections and landing gear to take advantage of the improvements to the civil models since the end of World War II. Eventually 900 aircraft were remanufactured to be similar to the then-current Model D18S and given new designations, constructor's numbers (c/nos.) and Air Force serial Numbers (s/nos).[8] The USN had many of its surviving aircraft remanufactured as well, these being re-designated as SNB-5s and SNB-5Ps.[9] The C-45 flew in US Air Force service until 1963, the USN retired their last SNB in 1972 while the U.S. Army flew their C-45s through 1976. In later years the military called these aircraft "bug smashers" in reference to their extensive use supplying mandatory flight hours for desk-bound aviators in the Pentagon.[10]

Some of the modifications created by independent engineering entrepreneurs were adopted in concept by the factory in later production versions in similar fashion to the current practice Harley Davidson copying of custom motorcycles built in the 1960s and 1970s.

Among the most notable cooling air and exhaust modifications were those engineered by Benjamin Israel while employed by Conrad Conversions. His modifications were based largely on creating a more efficient use of cooling air to reduce drag, a major detriment to cruise performance. Cruise performance was improved 10% or more at the same power settings as before the modifications. These modifications were largely copied on the factory produced G and H models. Beech 18s were used extensively by Air America during the Vietnam War; initially more-or-less standard ex-military C-45 examples were used, but then the airline had 12 aircraft modified by Conrad Conversions in 1963 and 1964 to increase performance and load-carrying capacity. The modified aircraft were known as Conrad Ten-Twos, as the maximum take-off weight (MTOW) was increased to 10,200 lb (4,600 kg).[11][12] The increase was achieved by several airframe modifications, including increased horizontal stabilizer angle-of-incidence, redesigned landing gear doors, and aerodynamically-improved wing tips. Air America then had Volpar convert 14 aircraft to turboprop power, fitted with Garrett AiResearch TPE-331 engines; modified aircraft were called Volpar Turbo Beeches and also had a further increase in MTOW to 10,286 lb (4,666 kg).[11]

Engineless Hamilton Westwind conversion at an airfield in Tennessee

A factory option at one point was the addition of JATO bottles on each engine nacelle which added the equivalent of 200 horsepower (150 kW) per engine for about 12 seconds. The most successful powerplant upgrade was that of the Pratt & Whitney Canada PT6 turbine engine and Hartzell propeller. This conversion was carried out by Hamilton Aircraft in the 1960s and 70s as the Hamilton Westwind, successfully extending the commercial life of the aging aircraft. The Westwind II added a fuselage stretch to provide seating for 17 passengers, the Westwind III seated eight and used the remainder of the extra room for cargo, and the Westwind IV added an extra stretch and a large cargo door.

Spar Problems

The wing spar of the Model 18 is fabricated by welding an assembly of tubular steel. The configuration of the tubes and inadequate corrosion inhibitors, along with holes from after-market STC modifications have allowed the spar to become susceptible to corrosion and cracking while in service.[13] This prompted the FAA to issue an Airworthiness Directive in 1975, mandating the fitment of a spar strap to Model 18s. This led in turn to the retirement of a large number of Model 18s when owners determined that the aircraft were worth less than the cost of the modifications. Further requirements have been mandated by the FAA and other national airworthiness authorities, including regular removal of the spar strap to allow the strap to be checked for cracks and corrosion and the spar to be X-rayed. In Australia the airworthiness authority has placed a life limit on the airframe, beyond which aircraft are not allowed to fly.[14][15][16]

Variants

Manufacturer Models

Unless otherwise noted, the engines fitted are Pratt & Whitney R-985 radials.

Model 18A
First production model with seating for two pilots and seven or eight passengers, fitted with Wright R-760E-2 engines of 350 horsepower (260 kW). MTOW: 6,700 lb (3,000 kg).[17][18]
Version of Model 18A capable of being fitted with skis or Edo 55-7170 floats; MTOW: 7,200 lb (3,300 kg).[18]
Model 18B
Improved model with increased range and useful load, fitted with 285 hp (213 kW) Jacobs L-5 engines.[17][19][20]
Version of Model 18B capable of being fitted with skis or floats.
Model 18D
Variant with seating for two pilots and nine passengers, fitted with Jacobs L-6 engines of 330 horsepower (250 kW). MTOW: 7,200 lb (3,300 kg).[21]
Version of Model 18D capable of being fitted with skis or Edo 55-7170 floats; MTOW: 7,170 lb (3,250 kg).[7][21]
Model A18D
Variant of 18D with MTOW increased by 300 lb (140 kg) to 7,500 lb (3,400 kg), fitted with Pratt and Whitney R-985 engines with 450 hp each.[21]
Seaplane version of Model A18D but same MTOW as S18D, fitted with Edo 55-7170 floats.[21]
Model A18A
Version fitted with Pratt and Whitney R-985 engines of 450 horsepower (340 kW). MTOW: 7,500 lb (3,400 kg).[21]
Seaplane version of Model A18A, fitted with Edo 55-7170 floats; MTOW: 7,170 lb (3,250 kg).[21]
Model 18R
Model with Pratt and Whitney R-985-A1 engines with dual stage bower for increased power at higher operating altitudes. 450 horsepower (340 kW); seven built, one to Sweden as an air ambulance, six to Nationalist China as M18R light bombers.[6][17]
Model 18S
Nine-passenger pre-World War II civil variant, served as basis for USAAF C-45C.[2]
Model B18S
Nine-passenger pre-World War II civil variant, served as basis for USAAF F-2.[2]
Model C18S
Variant of B18S with seating for eight passengers, and equipment and minor structural changes.[22]
Model D18S
First post-World War II variant introduced in 1945 with seating for eight passengers and MTOW of 8,750 lb (3,970 kg). 1,035 built (c/nos. A-1 to A-1035).[23][24]
Model D18C
Variant with Continental R9-A engines of 525 horsepower (391 kW) and MTOW of 9,000 lb (4,100 kg), introduced in 1947. 31 built (c/nos. AA-1 to AA-31).[23][26]
Model E18S
Variant with redesigned wing and MTOW of 9,300 lb (4,200 kg); 403 built (c/nos. BA-1 to BA-402 and BA-497).[23]
Model E18S-9700
Variant of E18S with MTOW of 9,700 lb (4,400 kg); 57 built (c/nos. BA-403 to BA-433, BA-435 to BA-460).[23]
Model G18S
Superseded E18S, MTOW of 9,700 lb (4,400 kg); 155 built (c/nos. BA-434, BA-461 to BA-496, BA-498 to BA-562, BA-564 to BA-579, BA-581 to BA-617).[23][24]
Model G18S-9150
Lightweight version of G18, MTOW of 9,150 lb (4,150 kg); 1 built (c/no. BA-563).[23][24]
Model H18
Last production version, fitted with optional tricycle undercarriage developed by Volpar and MTOW of 9,900 lb (4,500 kg); 149 built (c/nos. BA-580, BA-618 to BA-765), of which 109 were manufactured with tricycle undercarriage.[3][23][24]

Military versions

C-45
Six seat staff transport based on C18S;[22] 11 built.[27][28]
C-45A
Eight seat utility transport based on C18S;[22] 20 built.[27]
RC-45A
Redesignation of all surviving F-2, F-2A and F-2B aircraft by the USAF in 1948.
C-45B
Based on C18S but with modified internal layout; 223 ordered. Re-designated UC-45B in 1943.[22][28]
C-45C
Two Model 18S aircraft impressed into the USAAF. Re-designated UC-45C in January 1943.[2][9][17][29]
C-45D
Designation given to two AT-7 aircraft converted as passenger transports during manufacture (USAAF s/nos. 42-56785 and 43-33281). Re-designated UC-45D in January 1943.[9][29][30]
C-45E
Designation given to two AT-7 and four AT-7B aircraft converted as passenger transports during manufacture (USAAF s/nos. 42-43484, 42-43486, 43-33282 to 43-33285). Re-designated UC-45E in January 1943.[9][29][30]
C-45F
Standardised seven-seat version based on C18S, with longer nose than preceding models;[9][22] 1,137 ordered. Redesignated UC-45F.[28]
C-45G
AT-7s and AT-11s remanufactured in early 1950s for the United States Air Force (USAF) to similar standard as civil D18S with autopilot and R-985-AN-3 engines; 372 aircraft rebuilt (c/nos. AF-61 to AF-60, AF-157 to AF-468; USAF s/nos. 51-11444 to 51-11503, 51-11600 to 51-11911).[8][9][31]
TC-45G
Multi-engine crew trainer variant of C-45G; AT-7s and AT-11s remanufactured in early 1950s for the USAF to similar standard as civil D18S. 96 aircraft rebuilt (c/nos. AF-61 to AF-156, USAF s/nos. 51-11504 to 51-11599).[8][31]
C-45H/AT-7 CAF, Platte Valley Airpark, Hudson, CO, June 2007
C-45H
AT-7s and AT-11s remanufactured in early 1950s for the USAF to similar standard as civil D18S, with no autopilot and R-985-AN-14B engines; 432 aircraft rebuilt (c/nos. AF-469 to AF-900; USAF s/nos. 52-10539 to 52-10970).[8][9][32]
TC-45H [23]
RC-45J [23]
In 1962 all surviving US Navy SNB-5Ps were redesignated RC-45J.
TC-45J [23]
In 1962 all surviving US Navy SNB-5s were redesignated TC-45J.
UC-45J [23]
AT-7 Navigator
Navigation trainer based on C18S,[22] with an astrodome and positions for three students. Powered by 450 hp (336 kW) R-985-25 engines; 577 built.[9][27][28]
AT-7A
Floatplane version of AT-7; six built.[27]
AT-7B
Winterised AT-7; nine built.[27]
AT-7C
Based on C18S[22] with R-985-AN3 engines; 549 built.[27]
AT-11 Kansan
Bombing and gunnery trainer for USAAF derived from AT-7. Fuselage had small circular cabin windows, bombardier position in nose, and bomb bay; fitted with two machine guns, one in nose and one in a dorsal gun turret. 1,582 built for USAAF orders, with 24 ordered by Netherlands repossessed by USAAF and used by the Royal Netherlands Military Flying School at Jackson, Mississippi.[9][33][34]
AT-11A
Conversion of AT-11 as navigation trainer; 36 converted.[34]
CQ-3
Conversion of UC-45F, modified to act as drone control aircraft. Re-designated as DC-45F in June 1948.[9]
F-2
Photo-reconnaissance version based on B18.[2]
F-2A
Improved version.
F-2B
JRB-1
Photographic aircraft for the US Navy, based on the C18S,[22] fitted with fairing over cockpit for improved visibility. 11 built.[35]
JRB-2
Light transport for the US Navy, based on the C18S;[22] 15 built.[35]
JRB-3
Photographic version, similar to C-45B; 23 built.[35]
JRB-4
Utility transport version, equivalent to UC-45F; 328 built.[35]
JRB-6 [23]
SNB-1
Variant for the US Navy, similar to AT-11;[36] 110 built.[37]
SNB-2
Navigation trainer for the US Navy.[36] Similar to AT-7; 299 built.
SNB-2C
Variant for the US Navy, similar to AT-7C.[36]
SNB-2H
Ambulance conversion for the US Navy.[36]
SNB-2P
Photo reconnaissance trainer for the US Navy.[36]
SNB-3
Variant for the US Navy, similar to AT-7C.
SNB-3Q
Electronic counter-measures trainer for the US Navy.
SNB-5 [23]
SNB-2s and SNB-2Cs were remanufactured, and designated SNB-5 by the US Navy.
SNB-5P [23]
Photographic-reconnaissance trainer for the US Navy.

Operators

Military Model 18 operators
Argentine Navy C45
Beechcraft C-45 Expeditor in Royal Canadian Air Force Air Transport Command markings
C-45 as used by the Swiss Air Force for civilian aerial photography missions
Beech 18/C-45 at the National Museum of the United States Air Force
Beechcraft UC-45F in flight.
 Argentina
 Bolivia
 Brazil
 Canada
 Chile
 China
 Colombia
 Costa Rica
 Côte d'Ivoire
 Dominican Republic
 Ecuador
 El Salvador
 France
 Guatemala
 Honduras
 Indonesia
 Iran
 Italy
 Japan
 Mexico
 Netherlands
 Nicaragua
 Niger
 Nigeria
 Paraguay
 Peru
 Philippines
 Portugal
 Somalia
 South Africa
 South Vietnam
 Spain
 Sri Lanka
 Sweden
 Switzerland
 Thailand
 Tonga
 Turkey
 United Kingdom
 United States
 Uruguay
 Venezuela
 Zaire

Aircraft on display

Specifications (UC-45 Expeditor)

Beech C45 Silh.jpg

Data from Jane's Fighting Aircraft of World War II[44]

General characteristics

Performance

See also

Comparable aircraft

Related lists

References

Notes
  1. ↑ "D18S page." Beechcraft Heritage Museum. Retrieved: 24 August 2008
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 FAA Beech B18 Series Type Certificate. Retrieved: 8 August 2008.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 Beechcraft Heritage Museum Model 18 Specifications page. Retrieved: 24 August 2008.
  4. ↑ Young, Shad. "The Beechcraft Model 18 & Volpar Tri-Gear - A Brief History". Retrieved: 8 August 2008.
  5. ↑ "Aircraft on Display at the BC Aviation Museum"
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Aerofiles.com Beechcraft page. Retrieved: 12 August 2008.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Beechcraft Heritage Museum S18D page. Retrieved: 12 August 2008.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3 Beechcraft Heritage Museum C-45H page. Retrieved: 24 August 2008.
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 9.7 9.8 9.9 "Beech Model 18 page." Virtual Aviation Museum. Retrieved: 25 August 2008.
  10. ↑ O'Rourke, G.G, CAPT USN. "Of Hosenoses, Stoofs, and Lefthanded Spads." United States Naval Institute Proceedings, July 1968.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 "Air America: Beech/Volpar Turbo Beech 18". University of Texas at Dallas, 2006. Retrieved: 12 August 2008.
  12. ↑ Deakin, John. "Pelican's Perch #75:Those Dreadful POHs (Part 1)". AVweb, 9 November 2003. Retrieved: 12 August 2008.
  13. ↑ Ramey, Taigh. "Spar concerns"
  14. ↑ Ramey, Taigh. "Things to Consider when Buying a Twin Beech Project". Page from web site of Vintage Aircraft, Stockton, California. Retrieved: 24 August 2008.
  15. ↑ FAA Airworthiness Directive No. AD 75-27-09. Retrieved: 24 August 2008
  16. ↑ CASA Airworthiness Directive No. AD/BEECH 18/17. Retrieved 24 August 2008.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 17.3 "USA Warplanes C-45 page." uswarplanes.net. Retrieved: 24 August 2008.
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 FAA Beech 18A Series Type Certificate. Retrieved: 9 August 2008.
  19. ↑ AircraftWorldDirectory.com Beech 18 (C-45F) page. Retrieved 28 August 2008.
  20. ↑ McKillop, Jack. "Beech JRB Expedition (sic), Beech SNB Kansan and Navigator". Retrieved 28 August 2008.
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 21.2 21.3 21.4 21.5 FAA Beech 18D/A18 Series Type Certificate. Retrieved: 8 August 2008.
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 22.2 22.3 22.4 22.5 22.6 22.7 22.8 Beech C18S Type Certificate. Retrieved: 12 August 2008.
  23. ↑ 23.00 23.01 23.02 23.03 23.04 23.05 23.06 23.07 23.08 23.09 23.10 23.11 23.12 23.13 FAA Beech D18/E18/G18/H18 Series Type Certificate. Retrieved: 8 August 2008.
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 24.2 24.3 Hawker Beechcraft aircraft Serial Number Lists 1945-2008. Retrieved: 8 August 2008.
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 25.2 FAA Type Certificate A-765 (Beech D18/E18/G18/H18 Series), p. 48.
  26. ↑ Airliners.net Beech 18 page. Retrieved: 8 August 2008.
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 27.2 27.3 27.4 27.5 Donald 1995, p. 7.
  28. ↑ 28.0 28.1 28.2 28.3 Swanborough and Bowers 1963, p. 36.
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 29.2 Baugher, Joe. "USAAF 1942 Serial Number List." USAAS-USAAC-USAAF-USAF Aircraft Serial Numbers–1908 to Present. Retrieved: 24 August 2008.
  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 Baugher, Joe. "USAAF 1943 Serial Number List." USAAS-USAAC-USAAF-USAF Aircraft Serial Numbers–1908 to Present. Retrieved: 25 August 2008.
  31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 Baugher, Joe. "USAF 1951 Serial Number List." USAAS-USAAC-USAAF-USAF Aircraft Serial Numbers–1908 to Present. Retrieved: 24 August 2008.
  32. ↑ Baugher, Joe. USAF 1952 Serial Number List. USAAS-USAAC-USAAF-USAF Aircraft Serial Numbers–1908 to Present. Retrieved: 24 August 2008.
  33. ↑ Donald 1995, pp. 7–8.
  34. ↑ 34.0 34.1 Swanborough and Bowers 1963, p. 37.
  35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 35.2 35.3 Swanborough and Bowers, 1976, p. 41.
  36. ↑ 36.0 36.1 36.2 36.3 36.4 Swanborough and Bowers, 1976, p. 42.
  37. ↑ Swanborough and Bowers, 1976, p. 44.
  38. ↑ "Collection." Beechcraft Heritage Museum, June 2009. Retrieved: 2 January 2010.
  39. ↑ Fundación Infante de Orleans
  40. ↑ 40.0 40.1 Ogden 2007
  41. ↑ United States Air Force Museum 1975, p. 31.
  42. ↑ Durand, Alain. "Picture of the Beech C-45F Expeditor (18) aircraft." airliners.net, September 1993. Retrieved: 2 January 2010.
  43. ↑ http://warbirdsofindia.com/orissa/308-beech18.html
  44. ↑ Bridgeman 1946, p. 205.
Bibliography
  • "Aircraft on Display." BC Aviation Museum. Retrieved: 29 December 2008.
  • Bridgeman, Leonard, ed. “The Beechcraft Expeditor.” Jane's Fighting Aircraft of World War II. London: Studio, 1946. ISBN 1-85170-493-0.
  • Donald, David, ed.American Warplanes of World War II. London: Aerospace, 1995. ISBN 1-874023-72-7.
  • Mondey, David. American Aircraft of World War II (Hamlyn Concise Guide). London: Bounty Books, 2006. ISBN 978-0-7537-1461-4.
  • Ogden, Bob. Aviation Museums and Collections of North America. Tunbridge Wells, Kent, UK: Air-Britain (Historians) Ltd., 2007. ISBN 0-85130-385-4.
  • Swanborough, F. Gordon and Peter M. Bowers. United States Military Aircraft since 1909. London: Putnam, 1963.
  • Swanborough, Gordon and Peter M. Bowers. United States Navy Aircraft since 1911. London: Putnam, 1976. ISBN 0-370-10054-9.
  • United States Air Force Museum Guidebook. Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio: Air Force Museum Foundation, 1975.

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