Motorcycle

A 1954 Triumph T110 650 cc motorcycle
A Ural motorcycle with sidecar

A motorcycle (also called a motorbike, bike, or cycle) is a single-track,[1] two-wheeled[2] motor vehicle. Motorcycles vary considerably depending on the task for which they are designed, such as long distance travel, navigating congested urban traffic, cruising, sport and racing, or off-road conditions.

Motorcycles are one of the most affordable forms of motorised transport in many parts of the world and, for most of the world's population, they are also the most common type of motor vehicle.[3][4][5] There are around 200 million motorcycles (including mopeds, motor scooters and other powered two and three-wheelers) in use worldwide,[6] or about 33 motorcycles per 1000 people. This compares to around 590 million cars, or about 91 per 1000 people. Most of the motorcycles, 58%, are in the developing countries of Asia—Southern and Eastern Asia, and the Asia Pacific countries, excluding Japan—while 33% of the cars (195 million) are concentrated in the United States and Japan. As of 2002, India with an estimated 37 million motorcycles/mopeds was home to the largest number of motorised two wheelers in the world. China came a close second with 34 million motorcycles/mopeds.[7][8]

Contents

History

Replica of the Daimler-Maybach Petroleum Reitwagen.

The first internal combustion, petroleum fueled motorcycle was the Petroleum Reitwagen. It was designed and built by the German inventors Gottlieb Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach in Bad Cannstatt, Germany in 1885.[9] This vehicle was unlike either the safety bicycles or the boneshaker bicycles of the era in that it had zero degrees of steering axis angle and no fork offset, and thus did not use the principles of bicycle and motorcycle dynamics developed nearly 70 years earlier. Instead, it relied on two outrigger wheels to remain upright while turning.[10] The inventors called their invention the Reitwagen ("riding car"). It was designed as an expedient testbed for their new engine, rather than a true prototype vehicle.[11][12] Many authorities who exclude steam powered, electric or diesel two-wheelers from the definition of a motorcycle, credit the Daimler Reitwagen as the world's first motorcycle.[13][14][15]

If a two-wheeled vehicle with steam propulsion is considered a motorcycle, then the first was the French Michaux-Perreaux steam bicycle of 1868.[11][12] This was followed by the American Roper steam velocipede of 1869, built by Sylvester Howard Roper of Roxbury, Massachusetts.[11][12] Roper demonstrated his machine at fairs and circuses in the eastern U.S. in 1867,[9] and built a total of 10 examples.[15]

In 1894, Hildebrand & Wolfmüller became the first series production motorcycle, and the first to be called a motorcycle (German: Motorrad).[11][12][16][15] In the early period of motorcycle history, many producers of bicycles adapted their designs to accommodate the new internal combustion engine. As the engines became more powerful and designs outgrew the bicycle origins, the number of motorcycle producers increased.

Until World War I, the largest motorcycle manufacturer in the world was Indian,[17][18] producing over 20,000 bikes per year.[19] By 1920, this honour went to Harley-Davidson, with their motorcycles being sold by dealers in 67 countries.[20][21] By the late 1920s or early 1930s, DKW took over as the largest manufacturer.[22][23][24]

After World War II, the BSA Group became the largest producer of motorcycles in the world, producing up to 75,000 bikes per year in the 1950s. The German company NSU held the position of largest manufacturer from 1955 until the 1970s.

NSU Sportmax streamlined motorcycle, 250 cc class winner of the 1955 Grand Prix season

In the 1950s, streamlining began to play an increasing part in the development of racing motorcycles and the "dustbin fairing" held out the possibility of radical changes to motorcycle design. NSU and Moto Guzzi were in the vanguard of this development both producing very radical designs well ahead of their time.[25] NSU produced the most advanced design, but after the deaths of four NSU riders in the 1954–1956 seasons, they abandoned further development and quit Grand Prix motorcycle racing.[26] Moto Guzzi produced competitive race machines, and by 1957 nearly all the Grand Prix races were being won by streamlined machines. The following year, 1958, full enclosure fairings were banned from racing by the FIM in the light of the safety concerns.

From the 1960s through the 1990s, small two-stroke motorcycles were popular worldwide, partly as a result of East German Walter Kaaden's engine work in the 1950s.[27]

Today, the motorcycle industry is mainly dominated by Japanese companies such as Honda, Kawasaki, Suzuki, and Yamaha, although Harley-Davidson and BMW continue to be popular and supply considerable markets. Other major manufacturers include Piaggio group of Italy, KTM, Triumph and Ducati.

In addition to the large capacity motorcycles, there is a large market in smaller capacity (less than 300 cc) motorcycles, mostly concentrated in Asian and African countries. An example is the 1958 Honda Super Cub, which went on to become the biggest selling vehicle of all time, with its 60 millionth unit produced in April 2008.[28] Today, this area is dominated by mostly Indian companies with Hero Honda emerging as the world's largest manufacturer of two wheelers. Other major producers are Bajaj and TVS Motors.[29] For example, its Splendor model has sold more than 8.5 million to date.[30]

Technical aspects

A Suzuki GS500 with a clearly visible frame (painted silver).

Construction

Motorcycle construction is the engineering, manufacturing, and assembly of components and systems for a motorcycle which results in the performance, cost, and aesthetics desired by the designer. With some exceptions, construction of modern mass-produced motorcycles has standardised on a steel or aluminium frame, telescopic forks holding the front wheel, and disc brakes. Some other body parts, designed for either aesthetic or performance reasons may be added. A petrol powered engine typically consisting of between one and four cylinders (and less commonly, up to eight cylinders) coupled to a manual five- or six-speed sequential transmission drives the swingarm-mounted rear wheel by a chain, driveshaft or belt.

Fuel economy

Motorcycle fuel economy varies greatly with engine displacement and riding style[31] ranging from a low of 29 mpg-US (8.1 L/100 km; 35 mpg-imp) reported by a Honda VTR1000F rider,[32] to 107 mpg-US (2.20 L/100 km; 129 mpg-imp) reported for the Verucci Nitro 50 cc Scooter.[33] A specially designed Matzu Matsuzawa Honda XL125 achieved 470 mpg-US (0.50 L/100 km; 560 mpg-imp) "on real highways - in real conditions."[34] Due to lower engine displacements (100 cc–200 cc), motorcycles in developing countries offer good fuel economy. In the Indian market, the second best selling company, Bajaj, offers two models with superior fuel economy: XCD 125 and Platina. Both are 125 cc motorbikes with a company-claimed fuel economy of 256 mpg-US (0.919 L/100 km; 307 mpg-imp) and 261 mpg-US (0.901 L/100 km; 313 mpg-imp), respectively.

Electric motorcycles

Very high fuel economy equivalents can be derived by electric motorcycles. Electric motorcycles are nearly silent, zero-emission electric motor-driven vehicles. Operating range and top speed suffer because of limitations of battery technology. Fuel cells and petroleum-electric hybrids are also under development to extend the range and improve performance of the electric motors.

Dynamics

Racing motorcycles leaning in a turn.

Different types of motorcycles have different dynamics and these play a role in how a motorcycle performs in given conditions. For example, one with a longer wheelbase provides the feeling of more stability by responding less to disturbances.[35] Motorcycle tyres have a large influence over handling.

Motorcycles must be leaned in order to make turns. This lean is induced by the method known as countersteering, in which the rider steers the handlebars in the direction opposite of the desired turn. Because it is counter-intuitive this practice is often very confusing to novices—and even to many experienced motorcyclists.[36]

Short wheelbase motorcycles, such as sport bikes, can generate enough torque at the rear wheel, and enough stopping force at the front wheel, to lift the opposite wheel off the road. These actions, if performed on purpose, are known as wheelies and stoppies respectively. If carried past the point of recovery the resulting upset is known as an "endo" (short for "end-over-end"), or "looping" the vehicle.

Accessories

Various features and accessories may be attached to a motorcycle either as OEM (factory-fitted) or after-market. Such accessories are selected by the owner to enhance the motorcycle's appearance, safety, performance, or comfort, and may include anything from mobile electronics to sidecars and trailers.

Social aspects

Popularity

Motorbikes are the primary form of transportation in Vietnam.

In numerous cultures, motorcycles are the primary means of motorised transport. According to the Taiwanese government, for example, "the number of automobiles per ten thousand population is around 2,500, and the number of motorcycles is about 5,000."[37] In places such as Vietnam, motorised traffic consist of mostly motorbikes[4] due to a lack of public transport and low income levels that put automobiles out of reach for many.[3]

The four largest motorcycle markets in the world are all in Asia: China, India, Indonesia, and Vietnam.[3] The motorcycle is also popular in Brazil's frontier towns.[5] Amid the global economic downturn of 2008, the motorcycle market grew by 6.5%.[38]

Recent years have seen an increase in the popularity of motorcycles elsewhere. In the USA, registrations increased by 51% between 2000 and 2005.[39] This is mainly attributed to increasing fuel prices and urban congestion.[40] A Consumer Reports subscribers' survey of mainly United States motorcycle and scooter owners reported that they rode an average of only 1,000 miles (1,600 km) per year, 82% for recreation and 38% for commuting.[41] Americans put 10,000–12,000 miles (16,000–19,000 km) per year on their cars and light trucks.[42]

Subcultures

Sunbeam motorcycle owners rally, 2008.
A Hells Angels wall mural in Southampton, UK

Around the world, motorcycles have historically been associated with subcultures. Some of these subcultures have been loose-knit social groups such as the cafe racers of 1950s Britain, and the Mods and Rockers of the 1960s. A few are believed to be criminal gangs.

Social motorcyclist organisations are popular and are sometimes organised geographically, focus on individual makes, or even specific models. Example motorcycle clubs include: American Motorcyclist Association, Harley Owners Group and BMW MOA. Some organisations hold large international motorcycle rallies in different parts of the world that are attended by many thousands of riders.

Whereas many social motorcycle organisations raise money for charities through organised events and rides, some other motorcycle organisations exist only for the direct benefit of others. Bikers Against Child Abuse (BACA) is one example. BACA assigns members to individual children to help them through difficult situations, or even stay with the child if the child is alone or frightened.[43]

In recent decades, motorcyclists have formed political lobbying organisations in order to influence legislators to introduce motorcycle-friendly legislation. One of the oldest such organisations, the British Motorcycle Action Group, was founded in 1973 specifically in response to helmet compulsion, introduced without public consultation.[44] In addition, the British Motorcyclists Federation (BMF), originally founded in 1960 as a reaction to the public perception of motorcyclists as leather-jacketed hooligans, has itself moved into political lobbying. Likewise, the U.S. has ABATE, which, like most such organisations, also works to improve motorcycle safety, as well as running the usual charity fund-raising events and rallies, often for motorcycle-related political interests.[45]

At the other end of the spectrum from the charitable organisations and the motorcycle rights activists are the Outlaw Motorcycle Gangs. These are defined by the Provincial Court of Manitoba as: "Any group of motorcycle enthusiasts who have voluntarily made a commitment to band together and abide by their organisations' rigorous rules enforced by violence, who engage in activities that bring them and their club into serious conflict with society and the law".[46] The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) and Criminal Intelligence Service Canada have designated four MCs as Outlaw Motorcycle Gangs (OMGs), which are the Pagans, Hells Angels, Outlaws MC, and Bandidos,[47][48] known as the "Big Four".[49]

Mobility

A couple ride on a motorcycle in Udaipur, India. Annual sales of motorcycles in India is expected to exceed 10 million by 2010.[50]

While people choose to ride motorcycles for various reasons, those reasons are increasingly practical, with riders opting for a powered two-wheeler as a cost-efficient alternative to infrequent and expensive public transport systems, or as a means of avoiding or reducing the effects of urban congestion.[51] In places where it is permitted, lane splitting, also known as filtering, allows motorcycles to use the space between vehicles to move through stationary or slow traffic.[52]

In the UK, motorcycles are exempt from the £8 per day London congestion charge other vehicles must pay to enter the city during the day. Motorcycles are also exempt from toll charges at some river crossings, such as the Severn Bridge, Dartford Crossing, and Mersey Tunnels. Some cities, such as Bristol, allow motorcycles to use bus lanes and provide dedicated free parking. In the United States, those states that have high-occupancy vehicle lanes also allow for motorcycle travel in them. Other countries have similar policies.

In Australia many toll roads are free of tolls for motorcycles, and in some Australian cities (e.g. Melbourne) motorcycles can be parked on footpaths, allowing motorcyclists to park easily in the centre in of the central business district.

In New Zealand motorcycle riders are not required to pay for parking that is controlled by a barrier arm;[53] the arm does not occupy the entire width of the lane, and the motorcyclist simply rides around it.[54] Many car parks controlled in this way supply special areas for motorcycles to park, so as not to unnecessarily consume spaces.

In many cities that have serious parking challenges for cars, such as San Francisco, US and Melbourne, Australia, motorcycles are generally permitted to park on the sidewalk, rather than occupy a space on the street which might otherwise be used by a car.

Safety

Motorcycles have a higher rate of fatal accidents than automobiles. United States Department of Transportation data for 2005 from the Fatality Analysis Reporting System show that for passenger cars, 18.62 fatal crashes occur per 100,000 registered vehicles. For motorcycles this figure is higher at 75.19 per 100,000 registered vehicles – four times higher than for cars.[55] The same data show that 1.56 fatalities occur per 100 million vehicle miles travelled for passenger cars, whereas for motorcycles the figure is 43.47 – 28 times higher than for cars. Furthermore for motorcycles the accident rates have increased significantly since the end of the 1990s, while the rates have dropped for passenger cars.

Wearing a motorcycle helmet reduces the chances of death or injury in a motorcycle crash

The two major causes of motorcycle accidents in the United States are: motorists pulling out or turning in front of motorcyclists and violating their rights-of-way and motorcyclists running wide through turns. The former is sometimes called a SMIDSY, an acronym formed from the motorists' common response of "Sorry mate, I didn't see you".[56] The latter is more commonly caused by operating a motorcycle while intoxicated.[57] Motorcyclists can anticipate and avoid some of these crashes with proper training, increasing their conspicuousness to other traffic, and separating alcohol and riding.

The United Kingdom has several organisations which are dedicated to improving motorcycle safety by providing advanced rider training over and above what is necessary to pass the basic motorcycle test. These include the Institute of Advanced Motorists (IAM) and the Royal Society for the Prevention of Accidents (RoSPA). Along with increased personal safety, riders with these advanced qualifications often benefit from reduced insurance costs.

In South Africa, the Think Bike campaign is dedicated to increasing both motorcycle safety and the awareness of motorcycles on the country's roads. The campaign, while strongest in the Gauteng province, has representation in Western Cape, KwaZulu Natal and the Free State. It has dozens of trained marshals available for various events such as cycle races and is deeply involved in numerous other projects such as the annual Motorcycle Toy Run.[58]

An MSF rider course for novices

Motorcycle Safety Education is offered throughout the United States by organisations ranging from state agencies to non-profit organisations to corporations. The courses, designed by the Motorcycle Safety Foundation (MSF), include a Basic Rider Course, an Intermediate Rider Course and an Advanced Rider Course.

In the UK (except Northern Ireland) and some Australian jurisdictions, such as Victoria, New South Wales,[59] the Australian Capital Territory,[60] Tasmania[61] and the Northern Territory,[62] it is compulsory to undertake a rider training course before being issued a Learners Licence.

In Canada, motorcycle rider training is compulsory in Quebec and Manitoba only, but all provinces and territories have Graduated Licensing programs which place restrictions on new drivers until they have gained experience. Eligibility for a full motorcycle licence or endorsement for completing a Motorcycle Safety course varies by province. The Canada Safety Council, a non-profit safety organisation, offers the Gearing Up program across Canada and is endorsed by the Motorcycle and Moped Industry Council.[63] Training course graduates may qualify for reduced insurance premiums.

Types

A boulevard cruiser (front) and a sportbike (background)

There are three major types of motorcycle: street, off-road, and dual purpose. Within these types, there are many different sub-types of motorcycles for many different purposes.

Street bikes include cruisers, sportbikes, scooters and mopeds, and many other types. Off-road motorcycles include many types designed for dirt-oriented racing classes such as motocross and are not street legal in most areas. Dual purpose machines like the dual-sport style are made to go off-road but include features to make them legal and comfortable on the street as well.

Each configuration offers either specialised advantage or broad capability, and each design creates a different riding posture.

Motorcycle rider postures

The motorcyclist's riding position depends on rider body-geometry (anthropometry) combined with the geometry of the motorcycle itself. These factors create a set of three basic postures.[64]

Factors of a motorcycle's ergonomic geometry that determine the seating posture include the height, angle and location of footpegs, seat and handlebars. Factors in a rider's physical geometry that contribute to seating posture include torso, arm, thigh and leg length, and overall rider height.

Legal definitions and restrictions

A motorcycle is broadly defined by law in most countries for the purposes of registration, taxation and rider licensing as a powered two-wheel motor vehicle. Most countries distinguish between mopeds of 49 cc and the more powerful, larger, vehicles (scooters do not count as a separate category). Many jurisdictions include some forms of three-wheelers as motorcycles.

Environmental impact

In 2007 and 2008, motorcycles and scooters, due to good fuel efficiency, attracted interest in the United States from environmentalists and those affected by increased fuel prices.[70][71] Piaggio Group Americas supported this interest with the launch of a "Vespanomics" website and platform, citing lower per-mile carbon emissions of 0.4 lb/mile (113 g/km) less than the average car, a 65% reduction, and better fuel economy.[72]

Other sources, however, claim that while motorcycles produce much less pollution in terms of greenhouse gases, a motorcycle can in some cases emit 10–20 times the quantity of nitrogen oxides (NOx) when compared to the NOx emissions of a car.[70][73] This is because many motorcycles lack a catalytic converter to reduce NOx emissions, and while catalytic converters have been used in cars long enough that they are now commonplace, they are a relatively new technology in motorcycles.[70] Many newer motorcycles (such as later models of the Yamaha R1 and Suzuki GSXR1000, as well as most BMWs which have included catalytic converers since the 1990s) now have factory fitted catalytic converters. Along with other technologies that have taken longer to appear in motorcycles (e.g. fuel injection, anti-lock brake systems), catalytic converters are becoming increasingly commonplace.

United States Environmental Protection Agency 2007 certification result reports for all vehicles versus on highway motorcycles (which also includes scooters),[74] the average certified emissions level for 12,327 vehicles tested was 0.734. The average "Nox+Co End-Of-Useful-Life-Emissions" for 3,863 motorcycles tested was 0.8531, for a difference of about 16%, not the claimed 10X factor. Likewise, if one looks at how many of the 2007 motorcycles tested were also catalytic equipped, 54% of them, 2,092, were equipped with a catalytic converter.

United States emissions limits

The following table shows maximum acceptable legal emissions of the combination of hydrocarbon and nitrous oxides, as well as carbon monoxide, for new Class III motorcycles (280 cc or larger displacement) sold in the United States.[75]

Tier Model year HC+NOx (g/km) CO (g/km)
Tier 1 2006–2009 1.4 12.0
Tier 2 2010 and later 0.8 12.0

The maximum acceptable legal emissions of hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide for new Class I and II motorcycles (50 cc–169 cc and 170 cc–279 cc respectively) sold in the United States are as follows:[75]

Model year HC (g/km) CO (g/km)
2006 and later 1.0 12.0

Europe

European emission standards for motorcycles are similar to those for cars. New motorcycles must meet Euro III standards,[76] while cars must meet Euro V standards. Therefore, the difference in total pollution between motorcycles and cars that pass European emission standards would be small, certainly much smaller than the 10X factor claimed by the referenced LA Times article. Motorcycle emissions controls are being updated and it has been proposed to update to Euro IV in 2012 and Euro V in 2015[77]

See also

References

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  43. ↑ "About BACA". Bikers Against Child Abuse. http://www.bacausa.com/Internet/AboutBACA.php. Retrieved 10 October 2007. 
  44. ↑ "About MAG". MAG UK. http://www.mag-uk.org. Retrieved 10 October 2007. 
  45. ↑ Some other lobbying organisations are listed in Category:Motorcyclists organizations.
  46. ↑ Organized Crime Fact Sheet- Public Safety Canada
  47. ↑ FBI Safe Street Violent Crime Initiative - Report Fiscal Year 2000- FBI.org
  48. ↑ 2004 Annual Report- Criminal Intelligence Service Canada, cisc.gc.ca
  49. ↑ Motorcycle Gangs- Connecticut Gang Investigators Association
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  52. ↑ "All the info you need on lanesharing (lanesplitting)". www.WhyBike.com. http://www.whybike.com/motorcycle274.htm. Retrieved 28 June 2007. 
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  55. ↑ "The 'sorry mate I didn't see you' campaign". South Gloucestershire Council. http://www.southglos.gov.uk/TransportandRoads/Motorcycling/SorryMateIDidntSeeYou/. Retrieved 21 May 2008. 
  56. ↑ Hurt, H.H., Ouellet, J.V. and Thom, D.R. (January 1981). "The Hurt Report". Technical Report, Volume 1, Traffic Safety Center, University of Southern California. http://www.clarity.net/~adam/hurt-report.html. Retrieved 16 May 2007. 
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  58. ↑ "Learner riders licence". Motorcycle Rider Training Scheme, Roads and Traffic Authority, NSW. http://163.189.217.150/licensing/tests/motorcycleridertrainingscheme/learnerriderslicence.html. Retrieved 16 May 2007. 
  59. ↑ "Learner Licence". Road Transport Information Management, www.rego.act.gov.au. http://www.rego.act.gov.au/licensing/licencelearner.htm. Retrieved 16 May 2007. 
  60. ↑ "TAS Learner Licence". Department of Infrastructure, Energy and Resources, http://www.transport.tas.gov.au. http://www.transport.tas.gov.au/licence_information. Retrieved 13 June 2009. 
  61. ↑ "Motorcyclist Education Training And Licencing (METAL)". Northern Territory Department of Planning and Infrastructure, www.ipe.nt.gov.au. http://www.ipe.nt.gov.au/whatwedo/mvr/licensing/metal.html. Retrieved 16 May 2007. 
  62. ↑ "MMIC Information". Motorcycle and Moped Industry Council. http://www.mmic.ca. Retrieved 16 May 2007. 
  63. ↑ "A Three Dimensional Analysis of Riding Posture in Three Different Styles of Motorcycle" (PDF). Motorcycle Safety Foundation. March 2006. http://www.msf-usa.org/imsc/proceedings/b-Smith-ThreeDimensionalAnalysisofRiderPosture.pdf. Retrieved 31 January 2008. 
  64. ↑ 65.0 65.1 Stermer, Bill (2006). Streetbikes: Everything You Need to Know. MotorBooks/MBI Publishing Company. p. 16. ISBN 0760323623, 9780760323625. http://books.google.com/?id=NMokiWY6E00C&pg=PA16. 
  65. ↑ Duglin Kennedy, Shirley (2005). The Savvy Guide to Motorcycles. Indy Tech Publishing. p. 75. ISBN 0790613166, 9780790613161. http://books.google.com/?id=kEX7Ncd3hO4C&pg=PA75. 
  66. ↑ Seeley, Alan (2004). The Motorcycle Book: Everything You Need to Know about Owning, Enjoying, and Maintaining Your Bike. MotorBooks/MBI Publishing Company. pp. 18–19. ISBN 0760317453, 9780760317457. http://books.google.com/?id=gX9uopenItAC&pg=PA18. 
  67. ↑ Stermer, Bill (2006). Streetbikes: Everything You Need to Know. MotorBooks/MBI Publishing Company. p. 10. ISBN 0760323623, 9780760323625. http://books.google.com/?id=NMokiWY6E00C&pg=PA10. 
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  72. ↑ Umbra Fisk (28 May 2003). "On motorcycles - Ask Umbra". Grist. http://www.grist.org/article/umbra-motorcycles/. 
  73. ↑ "Certified Highway Motorcycle Test Result Report Data (2007)". US EPA. 8 January 2008. http://www.epa.gov/otaq/crttst.htm. 
  74. ↑ 75.0 75.1 "EPA Emissions Regulations for 1978 and Later New Motorcycles, General Provisions". United States Environmental Protection Agency. Retrieved on 1 June 2009. http://ecfr.gpoaccess.gov/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=ecfr&sid=8d901e18b06ced7049e865853c19356c&rgn=div6&view=text&node=40:18.0.1.1.2.5&idno=40. 
  75. ↑ Madson, Bart (15 February 2007). "Motorcycle Emissions Regs Examined". Motorcycle-USA.com. http://www.motorcycle-usa.com/313/1572/Motorcycle-Article/Motorcycle-Emissions-Regs-Examined.aspx. Retrieved 28 January 2010. 
  76. ↑ "EURO 5 Cycle Emissions Proposed for 2015". Dealernews.com. 8 December 2008. http://www.dealernews.com/dealernews/Breaking+News/EURO-5-Cycle-Emissions-Proposed-for-2015/ArticleStandard/Article/detail/570289?contextCategoryId=2704. Retrieved 28 January 2010. 

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