Cosmetics

Assorted cosmetics and tools

An 1889 Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec painting of a woman applying cosmetics to her face

Cosmetics are substances used to enhance the appearance or odor of the human body. Cosmetics include skin-care creams, lotions, powders, perfumes, lipsticks, fingernail and toe nail polish, eye and facial makeup, permanent waves, colored contact lenses, hair colors, hair sprays and gels, deodorants, baby products, bath oils, bubble baths, bath salts, butters and many other types of products. A subset of cosmetics is called "make-up," which refers primarily to colored products intended to alter the user’s appearance. Many manufacturers distinguish between decorative cosmetics and care cosmetics.

The manufacture of cosmetics is currently dominated by a small number of multinational corporations that originated in the early 20th century, but the distribution and sale of cosmetics is spread among a wide range of different businesses. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) which regulates cosmetics in the United States^[1] defines cosmetics as: "intended to be applied to the human body for cleansing, beautifying, promoting attractiveness, or altering the appearance without affecting the body's structure or functions." This broad definition includes, as well, any material intended for use as a component of a cosmetic product. The FDA specifically excludes soap from this category.^[2]

History

Nefertiti bust with eye liner applied

The first archaeological evidence of cosmetics usage was found in Egypt around 3500 BC during the Ancient Egypt times with some of the royalty having make up such as Nefertiti, Nefertari, mask of Tutankhamun, etc. The Ancient Greeks and Romans also used cosmetics. The Romans and Ancient Egyptians used cosmetics containing poisonous mercury and often lead. The ancient kingdom of Israel was influenced by cosmetics as recorded in the Old Testament—2 Kings 9:30 where Jezebel painted her eyelids—approximately 840 BC. The Biblical book of Esther describes various beauty treatments as well.

In the Middle Ages, although its use was frowned upon by Church leaders, many women still wore cosmetics. A popular fad for women during the Middle Ages was to have a pale-skinned complexion, which was achieved through either applying pastes of lead, chalk, or flour, or by bloodletting. Women would also put white lead pigment that was known as "ceruse" on their faces to appear to have pale skin. ^[3]

Cosmetic use was frowned upon at many points in Western history. For example, in the 1800s, make-up was used primarily by prostitutes, and Queen Victoria publicly declared makeup improper, vulgar, and acceptable only for use by actors.^[4] Adolf Hitler told women that face painting was for clowns and not for the women of the master race.

Women in the 19th century liked to be thought of as fragile ladies. They compared themselves to delicate flowers and emphasised their delicacy and femininity. They aimed always to look pale and interesting. Paleness could be induced by drinking vinegar and avoiding fresh air. Sometimes ladies discreetly used a little rouge on the cheeks, and used "belladonna" to dilate their eyes to make their eyes stand out more. Make-up was frowned upon in general especially during the 1870s when social etiquette became more rigid.

Actresses however were allowed to use make up and famous beauties such as Sarah Bernhardt and Lillie Langtry could be powdered. Most cosmetic products available were still either chemically dubious, or found in the kitchen amid food colorings, berries and beetroot.

By the middle of the 20th century, cosmetics were in widespread use by women in nearly all industrial societies around the world.

Cosmetics have been in use for thousands of years. The absence of regulation of the manufacture and use of cosmetics has led to negative side effects, deformities, blindness, and even death through the ages. Examples of this were the prevalent use of ceruse (white lead), to cover the face during the Renaissance, and blindness caused by the mascara Lash Lure during the early 1900s.

The worldwide annual expenditures for cosmetics today is estimated at $19 billion.^[5] Of the major firms, the largest is L'Oréal, which was founded by Eugene Schueller in 1909 as the French Harmless Hair Colouring Company (now owned by Liliane Bettencourt 26% and Nestlé 28%, with the remaining 46% are publicly traded). The market was developed in the USA during the 1910s by Elizabeth Arden, Helena Rubinstein, and Max Factor. These firms were joined by Revlon just before World War II and Estée Lauder just after.

Beauty products are now widely available from dedicated internet-only retailers,^[6] who have more recently been joined online by established outlets, including the major department stores and traditional bricks and mortar beauty retailers.

Like most industries, cosmetic companies resist regulation by government agencies like the FDA, and have lobbied against this throughout the years. The FDA does not have to approve or review the cosmetics, or what goes in them before they are sold to the consumers. The FDA only regulates against the colors that can be used in the cosmetics and hair dyes. The cosmetic companies do not have to report any injuries from the products; they also only have voluntary recalls on products. ^[7]

Criticism and controversy

Woman wearing cosmetics

During the 20th century, the popularity of cosmetics increased rapidly. Especially in the United States, cosmetics are used by girls at an increasingly young age. Due to the fast-decreasing age of make-up users, many companies, from high-street brands like Rimmel to higher-end products like Estee Lauder, have catered to this expanding market by introducing more flavored lipsticks and glosses, cosmetics packaged in glittery, sparkly packaging and marketing and advertising using young models. The social consequences of younger and younger beautification has had much attention in the media over the last few years.

Criticism of cosmetics has come from a variety of sources including feminists, animal rights activists, authors and public interest groups. There is a growing awareness and preference for cosmetics that are without any supposedly toxic ingredients, especially those derived from petroleum, sodium lauryl sulfate (SLS), and parabens.^[8]

Numerous published reports have raised concern over the safety of a few surfactants. SLS causes a number of skin issues including dermatitis.^{[9][10][11][12][13]}

Parabens can cause skin irritation and contact dermatitis in individuals with paraben allergies, a small percentage of the general population.^[14] Animal experiments have shown that parabens have a weak estrogenic activity, acting as xenoestrogens.^[15]

Prolonged use of makeup has also been linked to thinning eyelashes.^[16]

Synthetic fragrances are widely used in consumer products. Studies concluded from patch testing show synthetic fragrances are made of many ingredients which cause allergic reactions.^[17]

Cosmetics companies have been criticised for making pseudoscientific claims about their products which are misleading or not backed by science.^[18][19]

Makeup types

• Lipstick, lip gloss, lip liner, lip plumper, lip balm, lip conditioner, lip primer, and lip boosters.^[1]
• Foundation, used to smooth out the face and cover spots or uneven skin coloration. Usually a liquid, cream, or powder.^[1] Foundation primer is can be applied before to get a smoother finish.
• Powder, used to set the foundation, giving a matte finish, and also to conceal small flaws or blemishes.
• Rouge, blush or blusher, cheek coloring used to bring out the color in the cheeks and make the cheekbones appear more defined. This comes in powder, cream, and liquid forms.^[1]
• Bronzer, used to give skin a bit of color by adding a golden or bronze glow.^[1]
• Mascara is used to darken, lengthen, and thicken the eyelashes. It is available in natural colors such as brown and black, but also comes in bolder colors such as blue, pink, or purple. There are many different formulas, including waterproof for those prone to allergies or sudden tears. Often used after an eyelash curler and mascara primer.^[1]

Eye shadow being applied

Broadway actor Jim Brochu applies make-up before the opening night of a play.

The chin mask known as chutti for Kathakali, a performing art in Kerala, India is considered the thickest makeup applied for any artform.

• Eye liner, eye shadow, eye shimmer, and glitter eye pencils as well as different color pencils used to color and emphasize the eyelids (larger eyes give a more youthful appearance).^[1]
• Eyebrow pencils, creams, waxes, gels and powders are used to color and define the brows.^[1]
• Nail polish, used to color the fingernails and toenails.^[1]
• Concealer, Makeup used to cover any imperfections of the skin.

Also included in the general category of cosmetics are skin care products. These include creams and lotions to moisturize the face and body, sunscreens to protect the skin from damaging UV radiation, and treatment products to repair or hide skin imperfections (acne, wrinkles, dark circles under eyes, etc.). Cosmetics can also be described by the form of the product, as well as the area for application. Cosmetics can be liquid or cream emulsions; powders, both pressed and loose; dispersions; and anhydrous creams or sticks.

Lip stain is a cosmetic product that contains either water or a gel base. To help the product stay on the lips, many stains may contain alcohol. These lip coloring products are available in a variety of formulas, colors, and application types. The idea behind lip stains is to temporarily saturate the lips with color with a dye, rather than applying a colored wax to the lips to color them. A lip stain is usually designed to be waterproof so that the color will be long lasting, and once the stain dries, it should not smear, stain, wear unevenly, or transfer to the teeth. A lip stain may come in a bottle with an applicator which is used to brush the stain onto the lips, and it can also come in a small jar, with users applying the stain with a finger or a cosmetic brush.

Make-up remover is the product used to remove the make-up products applied on the skin. It is used for cleaning the skin for other procedure, like applying any type of lotion at evening before the person go to sleep.

Special effects

In addition to over-the-counter cosmetic products, recent years have seen an increasing market for prescription or surgical cosmetic procedures. These range from temporary enhancements, such as cosmetic colored contact lenses, to major cosmetic surgery. To temporary fashionable enhancement belongs application of false eyelashes or eyelash extensions, in order to enhance the natural eyelashes and make eye appearance more attractive.

Many techniques, such as microdermabrasion and physical or chemical peels, remove the oldest, top layers of skin cells. The younger layers of skin left behind appear more plump, youthful, and soft. Permanent application of pigments (tattooing) is also used cosmetically.

Ingredients

While there is assurance from the largest cosmetic companies that ingredients have passed quality tests and official regulations, and are therefore generally safe to use, there is a growing preference for cosmetics that are without any "synthetic" ingredients, especially those derived from petroleum. Once a niche market, handmade and certified organic products are becoming more mainstream.

Ingredients' listings in cosmetics are highly regulated in many countries. The testing of cosmetic products on animals is a subject of some controversy. It is now illegal in the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, and Belgium, and a ban across the European Union is due to come into effect in 2009.

Organic and natural ingredients

Even though many cosmetic products are regulated, there are still health concerns regarding the presence of harmful chemicals within these products. Aside from color additives, cosmetic products and their ingredients are not subject to FDA regulation prior to their release into the market. It is only when a product is found to violate Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FD&C Act) and Fair Packaging and Labeling Act (FPLA) after its release that the FDA may start taking action against this violation.^[20] With many new products released into the market every season, it is hard to keep track of the safety of every product. Some products carry carcinogenic contaminant 1,4- dioxane. Many cosmetic companies are coming out with "All natural" and "Organic" products. All natural products contain mineral and plant ingredients and organic products are made with organic agricultural products. Products who claim they are organic are not, unless they are certified "USDA Organic."^[21][22]

Cosmetic industry

The cosmetic industry is a profitable business for most manufacturers of cosmetic products. By cosmetic products, we understand anything that is intended for personal care such as skin lotions or sun lotions, makeup and other such products meant to emphasize one's look. Given the technological development and the improvement of the manufacturing process of cosmetics and not least due to the constantly increasing demand of such products, this industry reported an important growth in terms of profit.

The cosmetic industry has not only grown only in the United States, but also in various parts of the world which have become famous for their cosmetic precuts. Some of these include France, Germany, Italy and Japan. It has been estimated that in Germany, the cosmetic industry generated sales of EUR 12.6 billion at retail sales, in 2008 ^[23] which made of German cosmetic industry the 3rd in the world, after Japan and the United States. Also, it has been shown that in the same country, this industry has grown with nearly 5 percent in one year, from 2007 to 2008. The exports of Germany in this industry reached in 2008 EUR 5.8 billion whereas the imports of cosmetics totaled EUR 3 billion. ^[24] The main countries that export cosmetics to Germany are France, Switzerland, the United States and Italy and they mainly consist of makeup and fragrances or perfumes for women.

After the United States, Japan is the second largest market for cosmetics in the world, a market worth about JPY 1.4 trillion per year. ^[25]

The worldwide cosmetics and perfume industry currently generates an estimated annual turnover of US$170 billion (according to Eurostaf - May 2007). Europe is the leading market, representing approximately €63 billion, while sales in France reached €6.5 billion in 2006, according to FIPAR (Fédération des Industries de la Parfumerie - the French federation for the perfume industry). ^[26] France is another country in which the cosmetic industry plays an important role, both nationally and internationally. Most products on whose label it is stated "Made in France" are valued on the international market. According to data from 2008, the cosmetic industry has risen constantly in France, for 40 consecutive years. In 2006, this industrial sector reached a record level of EUR 6.5 billion. Famous cosmetic brands produced in France include Vichy, Yves Saint Laurent, Yves Rocher and many others.

The Italian cosmetic industry is also an important player in the European cosmetic market. Although not as large as in other European countries, the cosmetic industry in Italy was estimated to reach EUR 9 billion in 2007. ^[27] The Italian cosmetic industry is however dominated by hair and body products and not makeup as in many other European countries. In Italy, hair and body products make up approximately 30% of the cosmetic market. Makeup and facial care however are the first cosmetic products to be exported in the United States.

Due to the popularity of cosmetics, especially fragrances and perfumes, many designers who are not necessarily involved in the cosmetic industry came up with different perfumes carrying their names. Moreover, most actors and singers also have their own perfume line (such as Celine Dion). The designer perfumes are, like any other designer products, the most expensive in the industry as the consumer pays not only for the product but also for the brand. Famous Italian fragrances are produced by Giorgio Armani, Dolce and Gabbana and so on.

The European Commission and the FDA are the two bodies making legislation in what concerns cosmetic industry and its various aspects within the European Union, respectively in the United States. In the European Union, the circulation of cosmetic products and their safety are law subjects since 1976. One of the newest amendments of the directive concerning cosmetic industry comes as a result of the attempt to ban animal testing. Therefore, testing cosmetic products on animals is illegal in the European Union from September 2004 and testing separate ingredients of such products on animals is also prohibited by law starting with March 2009. ^[28]

The FDA joined with thirteen other Federal agencies in forming the Interagency Coordinating Committee on the Validation of Alternative Methods (ICCVAM) in 1997 which is an attempt to ban animal testing and find other methods to test the cosmetic products. ^[29]

The cosmetic industry worldwide seems to be continuously developing, now more than ever with the advent of the Internet companies. Many famous companies sell their cosmetic products online also in countries in which they do not have representatives. ^[30]

Cosmetic careers

A professional make-up artist servicing a client

An account executive is responsible for visiting all department and specialty store counter sales and doors. They explain new products and "gifts with purchase" (free items given out upon purchase of a certain cosmetics item that costs more than a set amount).

A beauty adviser provides product advice based on the client's skin care and makeup requirements. Beauty advisers can become certified through the Anti-Aging Beauty Institute.

Supermodel Alek Wek receiving make-up from a professional.

A cosmetician is a professional who provides facial and body treatments for clients. The term cosmetologist is sometimes used interchangeably with this term, but most commonly refers to a certified professional. A freelance makeup artist provides clients with beauty advice and cosmetics assistance—usually paid by the cosmetic company by the hour.

Professionals in cosmetics marketing careers manage research focus groups, promote the desired brand image, and provide other marketing services (sales forecasting, allocation to different retailers, etc.).

Those involved in cosmetics product development design, create and refine cosmetics products. Some positions that fall under this category include chemists, quality assurance and packaging people.

Many involved within the cosmetics industry often specialize in a certain area of cosmetics such as special effects makeup or makeup techniques specific to the film, media and fashion sectors.

See also

References

Further reading

• Winter, Ruth (2005) [2005] (in English). A Consumer's Dictionary of Cosmetic Ingredients: Complete Information About the Harmful and Desirable Ingredients in Cosmetics (Paperback). USA: Three Rivers Press. ISBN 1400052335. 
• Begoun, Paula (2003) [2003] (in English). Don't Go to the Cosmetics Counter Without Me(Paperback). USA: Beginning Press. ISBN 1877988308. 
• Carrasco, Francisco (2009) [2009] (in Spanish). Diccionario de Ingredientes Cosmeticos(Paperback). Spain: www.imagenpersonal.net. ISBN 9788461349791. 

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