Liquid crystal display

Reflective twisted nematic liquid crystal display.
  1. Polarizing filter film with a vertical axis to polarize light as it enters.
  2. Glass substrate with ITO electrodes. The shapes of these electrodes will determine the shapes that will appear when the LCD is turned ON. Vertical ridges etched on the surface are smooth.
  3. Twisted nematic liquid crystal.
  4. Glass substrate with common electrode film (ITO) with horizontal ridges to line up with the horizontal filter.
  5. Polarizing filter film with a horizontal axis to block/pass light.
  6. Reflective surface to send light back to viewer. (In a backlit LCD, this layer is replaced with a light source.)

A liquid crystal display (LCD) is a thin, flat electronic visual display that uses the light modulating properties of liquid crystals (LCs). LCs do not emit light directly.

They are used in a wide range of applications including: computer monitors, television, instrument panels, aircraft cockpit displays, signage, etc. They are common in consumer devices such as video players, gaming devices, clocks, watches, calculators, and telephones. LCDs have displaced cathode ray tube(CRT) displays in most applications. They are usually more compact, lightweight, portable, less expensive, more reliable, and easier on the eyes. They are available in a wider range of screen sizes than CRT and plasma displays, and since they do not use phosphors, they cannot suffer image burn-in.

LCDs are more energy efficient and offer safer disposal than CRTs. Its low electrical power consumption enables it to be used in battery-powered electronic equipment. It is an electronically-modulated optical device made up of any number of pixels filled with liquid crystals and arrayed in front of a light source (backlight) or reflector to produce images in colour or monochrome. The earliest discovery leading to the development of LCD technology, the discovery of liquid crystals, dates from 1888.[1] By 2008, worldwide sales of televisions with LCD screens had surpassed the sale of CRT units.

Contents

Overview

LCD alarm clock

Each pixel of an LCD typically consists of a layer of molecules aligned between two transparent electrodes, and two polarizing filters, the axes of transmission of which are (in most of the cases) perpendicular to each other. With no actual liquid crystal between the polarizing filters, light passing through the first filter would be blocked by the second (crossed) polarizer. In most of the cases the liquid crystal has double refraction.

The surface of the electrodes that are in contact with the liquid crystal material are treated so as to align the liquid crystal molecules in a particular direction. This treatment typically consists of a thin polymer layer that is unidirectionally rubbed using, for example, a cloth. The direction of the liquid crystal alignment is then defined by the direction of rubbing. Electrodes are made of a transparent conductor called Indium Tin Oxide (ITO).

Before applying an electric field, the orientation of the liquid crystal molecules is determined by the alignment at the surfaces of electrodes. In a twisted nematic device (still the most common liquid crystal device), the surface alignment directions at the two electrodes are perpendicular to each other, and so the molecules arrange themselves in a helical structure, or twist. This reduces the rotation of the polarization of the incident light, and the device appears grey. If the applied voltage is large enough, the liquid crystal molecules in the center of the layer are almost completely untwisted and the polarization of the incident light is not rotated as it passes through the liquid crystal layer. This light will then be mainly polarized perpendicular to the second filter, and thus be blocked and the pixel will appear black. By controlling the voltage applied across the liquid crystal layer in each pixel, light can be allowed to pass through in varying amounts thus constituting different levels of gray. This electric field also controls(reduces) double refraction properties of the liquid crystal.

LCD with top polarizer removed from device and placed on top, such that the top and bottom polarizers are parallel.

The optical effect of a twisted nematic device in the voltage-on state is far less dependent on variations in the device thickness than that in the voltage-off state. Because of this, these devices are usually operated between crossed polarizers such that they appear bright with no voltage (the eye is much more sensitive to variations in the dark state than the bright state). These devices can also be operated between parallel polarizers, in which case the bright and dark states are reversed. The voltage-off dark state in this configuration appears blotchy, however, because of small variations of thickness across the device.

Both the liquid crystal material and the alignment layer material contain ionic compounds. If an electric field of one particular polarity is applied for a long period of time, this ionic material is attracted to the surfaces and degrades the device performance. This is avoided either by applying an alternating current or by reversing the polarity of the electric field as the device is addressed (the response of the liquid crystal layer is identical, regardless of the polarity of the applied field).

When a large number of pixels are needed in a display, it is not technically possible to drive each directly since then each pixel would require independent electrodes. Instead, the display is multiplexed. In a multiplexed display, electrodes on one side of the display are grouped and wired together (typically in columns), and each group gets its own voltage source. On the other side, the electrodes are also grouped (typically in rows), with each group getting a voltage sink. The groups are designed so each pixel has a unique, unshared combination of source and sink. The electronics, or the software driving the electronics then turns on sinks in sequence, and drives sources for the pixels of each sink.

Illumination

As LCD panels produce no light of their own, they require an external lighting mechanism to be easily visible. On most displays, this consists of a cold cathode fluorescent lamp that is situated behind the LCD panel. Passive-matrix displays are usually not backlit, but active-matrix displays almost always are, with a few exceptions such as the display in the original Gameboy Advance.

Recently, two types of LED backlit LCD displays have appeared in some televisions as an alternative to conventional backlit LCDs. In one scheme, the LEDs are used to backlight the entire LCD panel. In another scheme, a set of green red and blue LEDs is used to illuminate a small cluster of pixels, which can improve contrast and black level in some situations. For example, the LEDs in one section of the screen can be dimmed to produce a dark section of the image while the LEDs in another section are kept bright. Both schemes also allows for a slimmer panel than on conventional displays.

Passive-matrix and active-matrix addressed LCDs

A general purpose alphanumeric LCD, with two lines of 16 characters.

LCDs with a small number of segments, such as those used in digital watches and pocket calculators, have individual electrical contacts for each segment. An external dedicated circuit supplies an electric charge to control each segment. This display structure is unwieldy for more than a few display elements.

Small monochrome displays such as those found in personal organizers, electronic weighing scales, older laptop screens, and the original Gameboy have a passive-matrix structure employing super-twisted nematic (STN) or double-layer STN (DSTN) technology—the latter of which addresses a colour-shifting problem with the former—and colour-STN (CSTN)—wherein colour is added by using an internal filter. Each row or column of the display has a single electrical circuit. The pixels are addressed one at a time by row and column addresses. This type of display is called passive-matrix addressed because the pixel must retain its state between refreshes without the benefit of a steady electrical charge. As the number of pixels (and, correspondingly, columns and rows) increases, this type of display becomes less feasible. Very slow response times and poor contrast are typical of passive-matrix addressed LCDs. Color passive-matrix displays exist, although they are limited to 16 colors.

Monochrome passive-matrix LCDs were standard in most early laptops (although a few used plasma displays). The commercially unsuccessful Macintosh Portable (released in 1989) was one of the first to use an active-matrix display (though still monochrome), but passive-matrix was the norm until the mid-1990s, when color active-matrix became standard on all laptops.

High-resolution colour displays such as modern LCD computer monitors and televisions use an active matrix structure. A matrix of thin-film transistors (TFTs) is added to the polarizing and colour filters. Each pixel has its own dedicated transistor, allowing each column line to access one pixel. When a row line is activated, all of the column lines are connected to a row of pixels and the correct voltage is driven onto all of the column lines. The row line is then deactivated and the next row line is activated. All of the row lines are activated in sequence during a refresh operation. Active-matrix addressed displays look "brighter" and "sharper" than passive-matrix addressed displays of the same size, and generally have quicker response times, producing much better images.

Active matrix technologies

A Casio 1.8 in colour TFT liquid crystal display which equips the Sony Cyber-shot DSC-P93A digital compact cameras

Twisted nematic (TN)

Twisted nematic displays contain liquid crystal elements which twist and untwist at varying degrees to allow light to pass through. When no voltage is applied to a TN liquid crystal cell, the light is polarized to pass through the cell. In proportion to the voltage applied, the LC cells twist up to 90 degrees changing the polarization and blocking the light's path. By properly adjusting the level of the voltage almost any grey level or transmission can be achieved.

In-plane switching (IPS)

In-plane switching is an LCD technology which aligns the liquid crystal cells in a horizontal direction. In this method, the electrical field is applied through each end of the crystal, but this requires two transistors for each pixel instead of the single transistor needed for a standard thin-film transistor (TFT) display. With older versions of IPS, before LG Enhanced IPS was introduced in 2009, the additional transistor resulted in blocking more transmission area, thus requiring a brighter backlight, which consumed more power, and made this type of display less desirable for notebook computers. This technology can be found in the Apple iMac, iPad, and iPhone 4, as well as the Hewlett-Packard EliteBook 8740w. Currently Panasonic is using an enhanced version eIPS for their large size LCD-TV products.

Advanced fringe field switching (AFFS)

Known as fringe field switching (FFS) until 2003,[2] advanced fringe field switching is a technology similar to IPS or S-IPS offering superior performance and colour gamut with high luminosity. AFFS is developed by HYDIS TECHNOLOGIES CO.,LTD, Korea (formally Hyundai Electronics, LCD Task Force).[3]

AFFS-applied notebook applications minimize colour distortion while maintaining its superior wide viewing angle for a professional display. Colour shift and deviation caused by light leakage is corrected by optimizing the white gamut which also enhances white/grey reproduction.

In 2004, HYDIS TECHNOLOGIES CO.,LTD licenses AFFS patent to Japan's Hitachi Displays. Hitachi is using AFFS to manufacture high end panels in their product line. In 2006, HYDIS also licenses AFFS to Sanyo Epson Imaging Devices Corporation.

HYDIS introduced AFFS+ which improved outdoor readability in 2007.

Vertical alignment (VA)

Vertical alignment displays are a form of LCDs in which the liquid crystal material naturally exists in a vertical state removing the need for extra transistors (as in IPS). When no voltage is applied, the liquid crystal cell remains perpendicular to the substrate creating a black display. When voltage is applied, the liquid crystal cells shift to a horizontal position, parallel to the substrate, allowing light to pass through and create a white display. VA liquid crystal displays provide some of the same advantages as IPS panels, particularly an improved viewing angle and improved black level.

Blue Phase mode

Blue phase LCDs do not require a liquid crystal top layer. Blue phase LCDs are relatively new to the market, and very expensive because of the low volume of production. They provide a higher refresh rate than normal LCDs, but normal LCDs are still cheaper to make and actually provide better colours and a sharper image.

Military use of LCD monitors

LCD monitors have been adopted by the US military instead of CRT displays because they are smaller, lighter and more efficient, although monochrome plasma displays are also used, notably in M1 Abrams tanks. For use with night vision imaging systems an LCD monitor must be compliant with MIL-L-3009 (formerly MIL-L-85762A). These LCD monitors go through extensive certification so that they pass the standards for the military. These include MIL-STD-901D - High Shock (Sea Vessels), MIL-STD-167B - Vibration (Sea Vessels), MIL-STD-810F – Field Environmental Conditions (Ground Vehicles and Systems), MIL-STD-461E/F – EMI/RFI (Electromagnetic Interference/Radio Frequency Interference), MIL-STD-740B – Airborne/Structureborne Noise, and TEMPEST - Telecommunications Electronics Material Protected from Emanating Spurious Transmissions.[4]

Quality control

Some LCD panels have defective transistors, causing permanently lit or unlit pixels which are commonly referred to as stuck pixels or dead pixels respectively. Unlike integrated circuits (ICs), LCD panels with a few defective pixels are usually still usable. It is claimed that it is economically prohibitive to discard a panel with just a few defective pixels because LCD panels are much larger than ICs, but this has never been proven. Manufacturers' policies for the acceptable number of defective pixels vary greatly. At one point, Samsung held a zero-tolerance policy for LCD monitors sold in Korea.[5] Currently, though, Samsung adheres to the less restrictive ISO 13406-2 standard.[6] Other companies have been known to tolerate as many as 11 dead pixels in their policies.[7] Dead pixel policies are often hotly debated between manufacturers and customers. To regulate the acceptability of defects and to protect the end user, ISO released the ISO 13406-2 standard.[8] However, not every LCD manufacturer conforms to the ISO standard and the ISO standard is quite often interpreted in different ways.

LCD panels are more likely to have defects than most ICs due to their larger size. For example, a 300 mm SVGA LCD has 8 defects and a 150 mm wafer has only 3 defects. However, 134 of the 137 dies on the wafer will be acceptable, whereas rejection of the LCD panel would be a 0% yield. Due to competition between manufacturers quality control has been improved. An SVGA LCD panel with 4 defective pixels is usually considered defective and customers can request an exchange for a new one. Some manufacturers, notably in South Korea where some of the largest LCD panel manufacturers, such as LG, are located, now have "zero defective pixel guarantee", which is an extra screening process which can then determine "A" and "B" grade panels. Many manufacturers would replace a product even with one defective pixel. Even where such guarantees do not exist, the location of defective pixels is important. A display with only a few defective pixels may be unacceptable if the defective pixels are near each other. Manufacturers may also relax their replacement criteria when defective pixels are in the center of the viewing area.

LCD panels also have defects known as clouding (or less commonly mura), which describes the uneven patches of changes in luminance. It is most visible in dark or black areas of displayed scenes.[9]

Zero-power (bistable) displays

The zenithal bistable device (ZBD), developed by QinetiQ (formerly DERA), can retain an image without power. The crystals may exist in one of two stable orientations ("Black" and "White") and power is only required to change the image. ZBD Displays is a spin-off company from QinetiQ who manufacture both grayscale and colour ZBD devices.

A French company, Nemoptic, has developed the BiNem zero-power, paper-like LCD technology which has been mass-produced in partnership with Seiko since 2007.[10] This technology is intended for use in applications such as Electronic Shelf Labels, E-books, E-documents, E-newspapers, E-dictionaries, Industrial sensors, Ultra-Mobile PCs, etc.

Kent Displays has also developed a "no power" display that uses Polymer Stabilized Cholesteric Liquid Crystals (ChLCD). A major drawback of ChLCD screens are their slow refresh rate, especially at low temperatures. Kent has recently demonstrated the use of a ChLCD to cover the entire surface of a mobile phone, allowing it to change colours, and keep that colour even when power is cut off.[11]

In 2004 researchers at the University of Oxford demonstrated two new types of zero-power bistable LCDs based on Zenithal bistable techniques.[12]

Several bistable technologies, like the 360° BTN and the bistable cholesteric, depend mainly on the bulk properties of the liquid crystal (LC) and use standard strong anchoring, with alignment films and LC mixtures similar to the traditional monostable materials. Other bistable technologies (i.e. Binem Technology) are based mainly on the surface properties and need specific weak anchoring materials.

Color displays

Subpixels of a colour LCD
Comparison of the OLPC XO-1 display (left) with a typical colour LCD. The images show 1×1 mm of each screen. A typical LCD addresses groups of 3 locations as pixels. The XO-1 display addresses each location as a separate pixel.
Example of how the colours are generated (R-red, G-green and B-blue)
Photo showing subpixels in detail
An example of a modern LCD display

In colour LCDs each individual pixel is divided into three cells, or subpixels, which are coloured red, green, and blue, respectively, by additional filters (pigment filters, dye filters and metal oxide filters). Each subpixel can be controlled independently to yield thousands or millions of possible colours for each pixel. CRT monitors employ a similar 'subpixel' structures via phosphors, although the electron beam employed in CRTs do not hit exact subpixels.

Brief history

A detailed description of the origins and the complex history of liquid crystal displays from the perspective of an insider during the early days has been published by Joseph A. Castellano in Liquid Gold: The Story of Liquid Crystal Displays and the Creation of an Industry.[25] Another report on the origins and history of LCD from a different perspective has been published by Hiroshi Kawamoto, available at the IEEE History Center.[26]

Specifications

Important factors to consider when evaluating a Liquid Crystal Display (LCD):

The spatial resolution of an LCD is expressed in terms of the number of columns and rows of pixels (e.g., 1024×768). This had been one of the few features of LCD performance that was easily understood and not subject to interpretation. Each pixel is usually composed of a red, green, and blue sub pixel. However there are newer schemes to share sub-pixels among pixels and to add additional colors of sub-pixels. So going forward, spatial resolution may be more subject to interpretation.

One external factor to consider in evaluating display resolution is the resolution of your own eyes. For a normal person with 20/20 vision, the resolution of your eyes is about one minute of arc. In practical terms that means for an older standard definition TV set the ideal viewing distance was about 8 times the height (not diagonal) of the screen away. At that distance the individual rows of pixels merge into a solid. If you were closer to the screen than that, you would be able to see the individual rows of pixels. If you are further away, the image of the rows of pixels still merge, but the total image becomes smaller as you get further away. For an HDTV set with slightly more than twice the number of rows of pixels, the ideal viewing distance is about half what it is for a standard definition set. The higher the resolution, the closer you can sit to the set or the larger the set can usefully be sitting at the same distance as an older standard definition display.

For a computer monitor or some other LCD that is being viewed from a very close distance, resolution is often expressed in terms of dot pitch or pixels per inch. This is consistent with the printing industry (another form of a display). Magazines, and other premium printed media are often at 300 dots per inch. As with the distance discussion above, this provides a very solid looking and detailed image. LCDs, particularly on mobile devices, are frequently much less than this as the higher the dot pitch, the more optically inefficient the display and the more power it burns. Running the LCD is frequently half, or more, of the power consumed by a mobile device.

An additional consideration in spatial performance are viewing cone and aspect ratio. The Aspect ratio is the ratio of the width to the height (for example, 4:3, 5:4, 16:9 or 16:10). Older, standard definition TVs were 4:3. Newer, HDTV’s are 16:9 as are most new notebook computers. Movies are often filmed in much different (wider) aspect ratios which is why there will frequently still be black bars at the top and bottom of a HDTV screen.

The Viewing Angle of an LCD may be important depending on its use or location. The viewing angle is usually measured as the angle where the contrast of the LCD falls below 10:1. At this point, the colors usually start to change and can even invert, red becoming green and so forth. Viewing angles for LCDs used to be very restrictive however, improved optical films have been developed that give almost 180 degree viewing angles from left to right. Top to bottom viewing angles may still be restrictive, by design, as looking at an LCD from an extreme up or down angle is not a common usage model and these photons are wasted. Manufacturers commonly focus the light in a left to right plane to obtain a brighter image here.

Refresh rate or the temporal resolution of an LCD is the number of times per second in which the display draws the data it is being given. Since activated LCD pixels do not flash on/off between frames, LCD monitors exhibit no refresh-induced flicker, no matter how low the refresh. rate.[29] High-end LCD televisions now feature up to 240 Hz refresh rate, which requires advanced digital processing to insert additional interpolated frames between the real images to smooth the image motion. However, such high refresh rates may not be actually supported by pixel response times and the result can be visual artifacts that distort the image in unpleasant ways.

Temporal performance can be further taxed if it is a 3D display. 3D displays work by showing a different series of images to each eye, alternating from eye to eye. For a 3D display it must display twice as many images in the same period of time as a conventional display and consequently the response time of the LCD becomes more important. 3D LCDs with marginal response times, will exhibit image smearing.

The temporal resolution of human perception is about 1/100th of a second. It is actually greater in your black and white vision (the rods in your eye) than in color vision (the cones). You are more able to see flicker or any sort of temporal distortion in a display image by not looking directly at it as your rods are mostly grouped at the periphery of your vision.

Color Depth or color support is sometimes expressed in bits, either as the number of bits per sub-pixel or the number of bits per pixel. This can be ambiguous as an 8-bit color LCD can be 8 total bits spread between red, green, and blue or 8 bits each for each color in a different display. Further, LCDs sometimes use a technique called dithering which is time averaging colors toe get intermediate colors such as alternating between two different colors to get a color in between. This doubles the number of colors that can be displayed; however this is done at the expense of the temporal performance of the display. Dithering is commonly used on computer displays where the images are mostly static and the temporal performance is unimportant.

When color depth is reported as color support, it is usually stated in terms of number of colors the LCD can show. The number of colors is the translation from the base 2-bit numbers into common base-10. For example, s 8-bit, in common terms means 2 to the 8th power or 256 colors. 8-bits per color or 24-bits would be 256 x 256 x 256 or over 16 Million colors. The color resolution of the human eye depends on both the range of colors being sliced and the number of slices; but for most common displays the limit is about 28-bit color. LCD TVs commonly display more than that as the digital processing can introduce color distortions and the additional levels of color are needed to ensure true colors.

There are additional aspects to LCD color and color management such as white point and gamma correction which basically describe what color white is and how the other colors are displayed relative to white. LCD televisions also frequently have facial recognition software which recognizes that an image on the screen is a face and both adjust the color and the focus differently from the rest of the image. These adjustments can have important impact to the consumer but are not easily quantifiable; people like what they like and everyone does not like the same thing. There is no substitute for looking at the LCD you are going to buy before buying it. Portrait film, another form of display, has similar adjustments built in to it. Many years ago, Kodak had to overcome initial rejection of its portrait film in Japan because of these adjustments. In the US, people generally prefer a more color facial image than is reality (higher color saturation). In Japan, consumers generally prefer a less saturated image. The film that Kodak initially sent to Japan was biased in exactly the wrong direction for Japanese consumers. TV sets have their built in biases as well.

The first caveat is that contrast ratios are measured in a completely dark room. In actual use, the room is never completely dark as you will always have the light from the LCD itself. Beyond that, there may be sunlight coming in through a window or other room lights that reflect off of the surface of the LCD and degrade the contrast. As a practical matter, the contrast of an LCD, or any display, is governed by the amount of surface reflections not by the performance of the display.

The second caveat is that the human eye can only image a contrast ratio of a maximum of about 200:1. Black print on a white paper is about 15-20:1. That is why viewing angles are specified to the point where the fall below 10:1. A 10:1 image is not great, but is discernable.

Brightness is usually stated as the maximum output of the LCD. In the CRT era, Trinitron CRTs had a brightness advantage over the competition so brightness was commonly discussed in TV advertising. With current LCD technology, brightness, though important, is usually the same from maker to maker and is consequently not discussed much except for notebook LCDs and other displays that will be viewed in bright sunlight. In general, brighter is better but there is always a trade-off between brightness and battery life in a mobile device.

See also

References

  1. ↑ Jonathan W. Steed and Jerry L. Atwood (2009). Supramolecular Chemistry (2nd ed.). John Wiley and Sons. p. 844. ISBN 9780470512340. http://books.google.com/?id=Jt1I74g6_28C&pg=PA844&dq=liquid-crystal+1888&q=liquid-crystal%201888. 
  2. ↑ "AFFS & AFFS+". Technology. Vertex LCD Inc.. http://vertexlcd.com/technology.htm#point04. 
  3. ↑ K. H. Lee, H. Y. Kim, K. H. Park, S. J. Jang, I. C. Park, and J. Y. Lee (June 2006). "A Novel Outdoor Readability of Portable TFT-LCD with AFFS Technology". SID Symposium Digest of Technical Papers (AIP) 37 (1): 1079–1082. doi:10.1889/1.2433159. 
  4. ↑ LCD Monitors, in the military.
  5. ↑ "Samsung to Offer 'Zero-PIXEL-DEFECT' Warranty for LCD Monitors". Forbes.com. December 30, 2004. http://www.forbes.com/infoimaging/feeds/infoimaging/2004/12/30/infoimagingasiapulse_2004_12_30_ix_9333-0197-.html. Retrieved 2007-09-03. 
  6. ↑ "What is Samsung's Policy on dead pixels?". Samsung. February 5, 2005. http://erms.samsungelectronics.com/customer/uk/jsp/faqs/faqs_view.jsp?SITE_ID=31&PG_ID=16&AT_ID=17628&PROD_SUB_ID=546. Retrieved 2007-08-03. 
  7. ↑ "Display (LCD) replacement for defective pixels - ThinkPad". Lenovo. June 25, 2007. http://www-307.ibm.com/pc/support/site.wss/document.do?lndocid=MIGR-4U9P53. Retrieved 2007-07-13. 
  8. ↑ "What is the ISO 13406-2 standard for LCD screen pixel faults?". Anders Jacobsen's blog. January 4, 2006. http://www.jacobsen.no/anders/blog/archives/2006/01/04/what_is_the_iso_134062_standard_for_lcd_screen_pixel_faults.html. 
  9. ↑ Sony XBR Mura
  10. ↑ http://www.nemoptic.com/content.php?section=technology
  11. ↑ Tetsuo Nozawa. "[SID] Entire Surface of Handset becomes LCD Display". Nikkei Tech-On. http://techon.nikkeibp.co.jp/english/NEWS_EN/20090609/171529. Retrieved 2009-06-10. 
  12. ↑ Dr Chidi Uche. "Development of bistable displays". University of Oxford. http://www.eng.ox.ac.uk/lc/research/Gratingstructures.html. Retrieved 2007-07-13. 
  13. ↑ Tim Sluckin: Ueber die Natur der kristallinischen Flüssigkeiten und flüssigen Kristalle (About the Nature of Crystallised Liquids and Liquid Crystals), Bunsen-Magazin, 7.Jahrgang, 5/2005
  14. ↑ Gray, George W.; Kelly, Stephen M. (1999). "Liquid crystals for twisted nematic display devices". Journal of Materials Chemistry 9: 2037. doi:10.1039/a902682g. 
  15. ↑ R. Williams, “Domains in liquid crystals,” J. Phys. Chem., vol. 39, pp. 382–388, July 1963
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 Castellano, Joseph A. (2006). "Modifying Light". American Scientist 94 (5): 438–445. 
  17. ↑ Heilmeier, George; Castellano, Joseph; Zanoni, Louis (1969). "Guest-Host Interactions in Nematic Liquid Crystals". Molecular Crystals and Liquid Crystals 8: 293. doi:10.1080/15421406908084910. 
  18. ↑ G. H. Heilmeier, L. A. Zanoni, and L. A. Barton, “Dynamic scattering: A new electrooptic effect in certain classes of nematic liquid crystals,” Proc. IEEE, vol. 56, pp. 1162–1171, July 1968
  19. ↑ http://www.invent.org/2009induction/1_3_09_induction_heilmeier.asp
  20. ↑ "Modifying Light". American Scientist Online. http://www.americanscientist.org/template/AssetDetail/assetid/53321/page/4;jsessionid=aaa6J-GFIciRx2%3Ci%3ELive. 
  21. ↑ Brody, T.P., "Birth of the Active Matrix", Information Display, Vol. 13, No. 10, 1997, pp. 28-32.
  22. ↑ "Optical Paterning". Nature. 1996-08-22. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v382/n6593/pdf/382666c0.pdf. Retrieved 2008-06-13. 
  23. ↑ "Worldwide LCD TV shipments surpass CRTs for first time ever". engadgetHD. 2008-02-19. http://www.engadgethd.com/2008/02/19/worldwide-lcd-tv-shipments-surpass-crts-for-first-time-ever/. Retrieved 2008-06-13. 
  24. ↑ "Displaybank's Global TV Market Forecasts for 2008 - Global TV market to surpass 200 million units". Displaybank. 2007-12-05. http://www.displaybank.com/eng/info/news/press_show.php?id=2996. Retrieved 2008-06-13. 
  25. ↑ Liquid Gold: The Story of Liquid Crystal Displays and the Creation of an Industry, Joseph A. Castellano, 2005 World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd., ISBN 981-238-956-3.
  26. ↑ The History of Liquid-Crystal Displays, Hiroshi Kawamoto, Proceedings of the IEEE, 90, #4 (April 2002), pp. 460–500, doi:10.1109/JPROC.2002.1002521
  27. ↑ “The Standard TV” pp 39-42 [1]
  28. ↑ LCD Monitor Parameters: Objective and Subjective Analysis Temporal Resolution
  29. ↑ Contemporary LCD Monitor Parameters: Objective and Subjective Analysis (page 3)
  30. ↑ ”Image Post-processing in an Entertainment LCD” [2]

External links

General information

Display technology
Video
Current generation
Electroluminescent display (ELD) · Vacuum fluorescent display (VFD) · Light emitting diode display (LED) · Cathode ray tube (CRT) · Liquid crystal display (LCD) · Plasma display panel (PDP) · Digital light processing (DLP) · Liquid crystal on silicon (LCoS)
Next generation
Organic light-emitting diode (OLED) · Surface-conduction electron-emitter display (SED) · Field emission display (FED) · Laser TV (Quantum dot laser · Liquid crystal laser) · Ferro liquid display (FLD) · Interferometric modulator display (iMoD) · Thick-film dielectric electroluminescent (TDEL) · Quantum dot display (QD-LED) · Telescopic pixel display (TPD) · Organic light-emitting transistor (OLET) · Laser phosphor display (LPD)
Non-video
Electromechanical (Flip-dot · Split-flap · Vane) · Electronic paper · Rollable · Eggcrate · Nixie tube
3D display
Stereoscopic · Autostereoscopic · Computer generated holography · Volumetric (Swept-volume) · Laser beam
Static media
Hologram · Movie projector · Neon sign · Rollsign · Slide projector · Transparency
Related articles
Display examples · Free-space display · Large-screen television technology · Optimum HDTV viewing distance · High dynamic range imaging (HDRI)
Comparison of display technology