Kolkata

Kolkata (কলকাতা)
"The City of Joy" ; "The City of Palaces" (archaic) ; "The Football City"
—  Metropolitan City  —
From top going clockwise: Victoria Memorial, St. Paul's Cathedral, Downtown Kolkata, Howrah Bridge, Kolkata tram, Vidyasagar Setu Bridge
Kolkata (কলকাতা)
Location of Kolkata (কলকাতা)
in West Bengal and India
Coordinates
Country  India
State West Bengal
District(s) Calcutta †
Mayor Sovan Chatterjee[1]
Population

• Density
• Metro

 5,138,208[2] (4th) (2010)

• 27,462 /km2 (71,126 /sq mi)
• 15,644,040[3] (3rd) (2010)
Spoken languages
Ethnic groups 
Time zone IST (UTC+5:30)
Area

• Elevation

 1,480 square kilometres (570 sq mi)

• 9 metres (30 ft)
Website Kolkatamycity.com

Kolkata (Bengali: কলকাতা; IPA: [ˈkolkat̪a]), is the capital of the Indian state of West Bengal. Kolkata is the cultural capital of India[5] and the commercial capital of Eastern India. It is located in eastern India on the east bank of the Hooghly River.[6] The Kolkata metropolitan area including suburbs has a population exceeding 15 million,[7] making it the third most populous metropolitan area in India and one of the most populous urban areas in the world. The city is also classified as the eighth largest urban agglomeration in the world.[8]

Kolkata served as the capital of India during the British Raj until 1911. Once the centre of modern education, science, culture and politics in India, Kolkata witnessed economic stagnation in the years following India's independence in 1947. However, since the year 2000, an economic rejuvenation has led to a spurt in the city's growth. Like other metropolitan cities of India, Kolkata continues to struggle with urbanisation problems like poverty, pollution and traffic congestion.

Kolkata is noted for its revolutionary history, ranging from the Indian struggle for independence to the leftist and trade union movements.

Contents

Etymology

The name Kolkata and the anglicised name Calcutta have their roots in Kalikata, the name of one of the three villages (Kalikata, Sutanuti, Govindapur) in the area before the arrival of the British.[9] "Kalikata", in turn, is believed to be a version of Kalikshetra (Bengali: কালীক্ষেত্র, "Land of [the goddess] Kali"). Alternatively, the name may have been derived from the Bengali term kilkila ("flat area").[10] Again, the name may have its origin in the indigenous term for a natural canal, Khal, followed by Katta (which may mean dug).[11] Another theory is that the place used to specialize in quicklime (kalicun) and coir rope (kátá) and hence the place was called Kalikátá.[12]

While the city's name was always pronounced "Kolkata" or "Kolikata" in the local Bengali language, its official English name was changed from "Calcutta" to "Kolkata" in 2001, reflecting the Bengali pronunciation. Some view this as a move to erase the legacy of British rule.[13] This change has not always been reflected by overseas media, but news sources like the BBC have opted to call Bombay Mumbai[14] and Calcutta Kolkata.[15]

History

Kolkata, shown here in 1945, was an important port during World War II.

The discovery of the nearby Chandraketugarh,[16] an archaeological site, provides evidence that the area has been inhabited for over two millennia.[17] The city's documented history, however, begins with the arrival of the English East India Company in 1690, when the Company was consolidating its trade business in Bengal. Job Charnock, an administrator with the Company was traditionally credited as the founder of this city.[10] However some academics have recently challenged the view that Charnock was the founder of the city, and in response to a public interest litigation the High Court ruled in 2003 that the city does not have a specific founder.[18]

At that time Kolkata, under direct rule of the Nawab of Bengal Siraj-Ud-Daulah, comprised three villages Kalikata, Gobindapur and Sutanuti. The British in the late 17th century wanted to build a fort near Gobindapur in order to consolidate their power over other foreign powers—namely the Dutch, the Portuguese, and the French. In 1702, the British completed the construction of old Fort William,[19] which was used to station its troops and as a regional base. Calcutta was declared a Presidency City, and later became the headquarters of the Bengal Presidency.[20] Faced with frequent skirmishes with French forces, in 1756 the British began to upgrade their fortifications. When protests against the militarisation by the Nawab of Bengal Siraj-Ud-Daulah went unheeded he attacked and captured Fort William, leading to the infamous Black Hole of Calcutta incident.[21] A force of Company sepoys and British troops led by Robert Clive recaptured the city the following year.[21] Calcutta was named the capital of British India in 1772, and starting in 1864 during the summer months, the capital was temporarily shifted to the hill station of Shimla.[22] In the early 19th century the marshes surrounding the city were drained and the government area was laid out along the banks of the Hooghly River. Richard Wellesley, the Governor General between 1797–1805, was largely responsible for the growth of the city and its public architecture which led to the description of Calcutta as "The City of Palaces".[23] The city was a centre of the British East India Company's opium trade during the 18th and 19th century.[24]

St. Paul's Cathedral was built in Calcutta during the British Raj

By the 1850s, Kolkata was split into two distinct areas—one British (known as the White Town) centred around Chowringhee, the other Indian (known as Black Town) centred around North Calcutta.[25] The city underwent rapid industrial growth from the 1850s, especially in the textile and jute sectors; this caused a massive investment in infrastructure projects like railroads and telegraph by British government. The coalescence of British and Indian culture resulted in the emergence of a new Babu class of urbane Indians — whose members were often bureaucrats, professionals, read newspapers, were Anglophiles, and usually belonged to upper-caste Hindu communities.[26] Throughout the nineteenth century, a socio-cultural reform, often referred to as the Bengal Renaissance resulted in the general uplifting of the people. In 1883, Surendranath Banerjee organised a national conference — the first of its kind in nineteenth century India.[10] Gradually Calcutta became a centre of the Indian independence movement, especially revolutionary organisations. The 1905 Partition of Bengal on communal grounds resulted in widespread public agitation and the boycott of British goods (Swadeshi movement).[27] These activities, along with the administratively disadvantageous location of Calcutta in the eastern fringes of India, prompted the British to move the capital to New Delhi in 1911.[28]

Map of Calcutta during 1784-85.

The city and its port were bombed several times by the Japanese during World War II,[29] the first occasion being 20 December 1942,[30] and the last being 24 December 1944.[31] During the War, millions starved to death during the Bengal famine of 1943, caused by a combination of military, administrative and natural factors.[32] In 1946, demands for the creation of a Muslim state led to large-scale communal violence resulting in the deaths of over 4,000 people.[33][34][35] The partition of India also created intense violence and a shift in demographics — large numbers of Muslims left for East Pakistan, while hundreds of thousands of Hindus fled into the city.[36] Over the 1960s and 1970s, severe power shortages, strikes and a violent Marxist-Maoist movement — the Naxalites — damaged much of the city's infrastructure, leading to a period of economic stagnation.[37] In 1971, war between India and Pakistan led to the mass influx of thousands of refugees into Kolkata resulting in a massive strain on its infrastructure.[38] In the mid-1980s, Bombay, now Mumbai, overtook Kolkata as India's most populous city. Kolkata has been a strong base of Indian communism as West Bengal has been ruled by the Communist Party of India (Marxist) (CPI(M))-dominated Left Front for 32 years now — the world's longest-running democratically elected communist government.[39][40] The city's economic recovery gathered momentum after economic reforms in India introduced by the central government in the mid-1990s. Since 2000, Information Technology (IT) services have revitalized the city’s stagnant economy. The city is also experiencing a growth in the manufacturing sector.[41]

Geography

Kolkata seen from Spot Satellite

Kolkata is located in eastern India at in the Ganges Delta at an elevation ranging between 1.5 m (5 ft) to 9 m (30 ft).[42] It is spread linearly along the banks of the River Hooghly in a north-south direction. Much of the city was originally a vast wetland, reclaimed over the decades to accommodate the city's burgeoning population.[43] The remaining wetland, known as East Calcutta Wetlands has been designated a "wetland of international importance" under the Ramsar Convention.[44]

Like the most of the Indo-Gangetic plains, the predominant soil type is alluvial. Quaternary sediments consisting of clay, silt, various grades of sand and gravel underlie the city. These sediments are sandwiched between two clay beds, the lower one at depths between 250 m (820 ft) and 650 m (2,133 ft) and the upper one ranging between 10 m (33 ft) and 40 m (131 ft) in thickness.[45] According to the Bureau of Indian Standards, the town falls under seismic zone-III, in a scale of I to V (in order of increasing proneness to earthquakes)[46] while the wind and cyclone zoning is "very high damage risk", according to UNDP report.[46]

Urban structure

Kolkata skyline

Kolkata city, under the jurisdiction of the Kolkata Municipal Corporation (KMC), has an area of 185 km2 (71 sq mi).[47] The Kolkata conurbation (Kolkata Metropolitan Area), however, is spread over 1,750 km2 (676 sq mi),[47] and comprises 157 postal areas, as of 2006.[48] The metropolitan area is formally administered by several local governments including 38 local municipalities. The urban agglomeration comprises 72 cities and 527 towns and villages.[47] The suburban areas of Kolkata metropolitan district incorporates parts of the districts North 24 Parganas, South 24 Parganas, Howrah, Hooghly and Nadia.

General Post Office of Kolkata

The east-to-west dimension of the city is narrow, stretching from the Hooghly River in the west to roughly the Eastern Metropolitan Bypass in the east, a span of barely 5 km (3.1 mi)–6 km (3.7 mi).[49] The north-south expansion is roughly divided into North, Central and South Kolkata. North Kolkata locality is the oldest part of the city, with 19th century architecture and narrow alleyways. South Kolkata grew mostly after independence of India and consists of posh localities such as Ballygunge, Alipore, New Alipore. The Salt Lake City (Bidhannagar) area to the northeast of the city is a planned section of Kolkata. Rajarhat, also called New Town, is a planned township being developed on the north-eastern fringes of the city.

Central Kolkata houses the central business district around the B. B. D. Bagh area. The government secretariat, General Post Office, High Court, Lalbazar Police HQs and several other government and private offices are located here. The Maidan is a large open field in the heart of the city where several sporting events and public meetings are held. Several companies have set up their offices around the area south of Park Street which has become a secondary central business district.

Climate

Kolkata has a tropical wet-and-dry climate (Köppen climate classification Aw). The annual mean temperature is 26.8 °C (80.2 °F); monthly mean temperatures range from 19 °C (66.2 °F) to 30 °C (86.0 °F).[50] Summers are hot and humid with temperatures in the low 30's and during dry spells the maximum temperatures often exceed 40 °C (104 °F) during May and June.[50] Winter tends to last for only about two and a half months, with seasonal lows dipping to 9 °C – 11 °C (54 °F – 57 °F) between December and January. The highest recorded temperature is 43.9 °C (111.0 °F) and the lowest is 5 °C (41.0 °F).[50] On an average, May is the hottest month with daily temperatures ranging from a low of 27 °C (80.6 °F) to a maximum of 37 °C (98.6 °F), while January the coldest month has temperatures varying from a low of 12 °C (53.6 °F) to a maximum of 23 °C (73.4 °F). Often during early summer, dusty squalls followed by spells of thunderstorm or hailstorms and heavy rains with ice sleets lash the city, bringing relief from the humid heat. These thunderstorms are convective in nature, and is locally known as Kal baisakhi (Bengali: কালবৈশাখী, Nor'westers).[51]

Rains brought by the Bay of Bengal branch of South-West monsoon[52] lash the city between June and September and supplies the city with most of its annual rainfall of 1,582 mm (62 in). The highest rainfall occurs during the monsoon in August—306 mm (12 in). The city receives 2,528 hours of sunshine per annum, with the maximum sunlight occurring in March.[53] Pollution is a major concern in Kolkata, and the Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM) level is high when compared to other major cities of India, leading to regular smog and haze.[54][55] Severe air pollution in the city has caused rise in pollution-related respiratory ailments such as lung cancer.[56]

Climate data for Kolkata
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Average high °C (°F) 26.6
(79.9)		 29.7
(85.5)		 34.0
(93.2)		 36.3
(97.3)		 36.0
(96.8)		 34.1
(93.4)		 32.2
(90)		 32.0
(89.6)		 32.2
(90)		 31.9
(89.4)		 29.8
(85.6)		 27.0
(80.6)		 31.8
(89.2)
Average low °C (°F) 13.9
(57)		 16.9
(62.4)		 21.7
(71.1)		 25.1
(77.2)		 26.4
(79.5)		 26.5
(79.7)		 26.1
(79)		 26.1
(79)		 25.8
(78.4)		 24.0
(75.2)		 18.9
(66)		 14.3
(57.7)		 22.2
(72)
Precipitation mm (inches) 16.8
(0.661)		 22.9
(0.902)		 32.8
(1.291)		 47.7
(1.878)		 101.7
(4.004)		 259.9
(10.232)		 331.8
(13.063)		 328.8
(12.945)		 295.9
(11.65)		 151.3
(5.957)		 17.2
(0.677)		 7.4
(0.291)		 1,614.2
(63.551)
Source: [57]

Economy

Cognizant Technology Solutions building at Salt Lake Sector-V, Electronics Complex

Kolkata is the main business, commercial and financial hub of eastern India and the northeastern states. It is home to the Calcutta Stock Exchange — India's second-largest bourse.[58] Kolkata was ranked the hardest Indian city in which to do business in 2009.[59]

Until recently, flexible production had always been the norm in Kolkata, and the informal sector has comprised more than 40% of the labour force.[60] For example, roadside hawkers generated business worth Rs. 8,772 crore (around 2 billion U.S. dollars) in 2005.[61] State and federal government employees make up a large percentage of the city's workforce. The city has a large unskilled and semi-skilled labour population, along with other blue-collar and knowledge workers. As in many other Indian cities, information technology became a major growing sector in Kolkata since late 1990s, with the IT sector growing at 70% yearly — twice that of the national average.[41] In recent years there has been a surge of investments in the housing infrastructure sector with several new projects coming up in the city led by companies such as DLF Limited and Unitech Group. Kolkata is home to many industrial units operated by large Indian corporations with products ranging from electronics to jute. Some notable companies headquartered in Kolkata include ITC Limited, India Government Mint, Kolkata, Haldia Petrochemicals, Exide Industries, Hindustan Motors, Britannia Industries, Bata India, Birla Corporation, CESC Limited, Coal India Limited, Damodar Valley Corporation, PwC India, Peerless Group, United Bank of India, UCO Bank and Allahabad Bank. Recently, various events like adoption of "Look East" policy by the government of India, opening of the Nathu La Pass in Sikkim as a border trade-route with China and immense interest in the South East Asian countries to enter the Indian market and invest have put Kolkata in an advantageous position.[62][63]

Civic administration

Kolkata City officials
Mayor
Sovan Chatterjee[1]
Police Commissioner
Gautam Mohan Chakraborty[64]
Map showing the jurisdictions of Kolkata civic authorities

The civic administration of Kolkata is executed by several government agencies, and consists of overlapping structural divisions. At least five administrative definitions of the city are available; listed in ascending order of area, those are:

  1. Kolkata District,
  2. the Kolkata Police area,
  3. the Kolkata Municipal Corporation area ("Kolkata city"),
  4. "Greater Kolkata", which includes the KMC area and a few neighbourhoods adjacent to it, and
  5. the urban agglomeration or Kolkata Metropolitan Area (KMDA) is responsible for the statutory planning and development of the metropolitan area).
Calcutta High Court

Kolkata Municipal Corporation (KMC)- The governance of the city proper—the area within which KMC has a directly elected council of 141 ward councilors who elect a council Chairman and an executive Mayor. The Mayor, in turn chooses a Deputy Mayor and not more than 10 elected councillors to form the Mayor-in-Council which works like a cabinet. In addition, there is a Municipal Accounts Committee (MAC)of five to seven elected councillors, other than the MiC, chosen through proportional representation, to act like a public accounts committee (PAC), usually headed by the Leader of Opposition. The MiC was introduced in 1980 and the system has been replicated in other Municipalities and Panchayats as Mayor/ Chairperson-in-council during 1981-1991. No other state in India has introduced a system of political executive in local government.

The main functions of the KMC are water supply, drainage and sewerage, sanitation, solid wastes management, streets and public places, street lighting, and building regulation. Fire services are handled by a state agency- Kolkata Fire Brigade. Similarly, for the river port services, there is a Kolkata Port Trust, an agency of the central government.[65]

Other authorities: the Collector of the Kolkata District, the Kolkata Police, the District Magistrate (DM) of South 24 Parganas District, and the (SP) of South 24 Parganas District.[66] As of 2010, the All India Trinamool Congress holds the power in KMC, its mayor is Sovan Chatterjee while the deputy mayor is Farzana Alam.[67] The city also has an apolitical titular post, that of the Sheriff of Kolkata.

As the capital of the state and the seat of the Government of West Bengal, Kolkata houses not only the offices of the local governing agencies, but also the West Bengal Legislative Assembly, the state Secretariat (Writers' Building) and the Calcutta High Court. Kolkata also has lower courts; the Small Causes Court for civil matters, and the Sessions Court for criminal cases. The Kolkata Police, headed by the Police Commissioner, comes under the West Bengal Home Ministry. The city elects three representatives to the Lok Sabha (India's lower house) and 21 representatives to the state Legislative Assembly.[68]

Utility services and media

VSNL tower of Tata Communications (previously known as VSNL), a major telecom service provider in India

The KMC supplies potable water to the city, sourced from the River Hooghly. The water is purified and treated at Palta water pumping station located in North 24 Parganas. Almost all of Kolkata's daily refuse of 2500 tonnes is transported to the dumping grounds in Dhapa to the east of the town. Agriculture on this dumping ground is encouraged for natural recycling of garbage and sewer water.[69] Parts of the city still lack sewage facilities leading to unsanitary methods of waste disposal.[53] Electricity is supplied by the privately operated (CESC) to the city region, and by the West Bengal State Electricity Board in the suburbs. Frequent interruption of power supply was a problem until the mid 1990s; however the situation has since improved immensely with seldom power cuts occurring presently. The city has 20 fire stations (under West Bengal Fire Service) that attend to 7,500 fire and rescue calls on average per year.[70]

State-owned BSNL and private enterprises like Vodafone, Airtel, Reliance Communications, Uninor, Idea Cellular, Aircel, Tata DoCoMo, Tata Indicom, Virgin Mobile and MTS India are the leading telephone and cell phone service providers in the city. Cellular coverage is extensive with both GSM and CDMA services being available. Broadband Internet penetration has steadily increased with BSNL, Tata Indicom, Sify, Airtel, Reliance and Alliance being the leading service providers.

Bengali language newspapers like Anandabazar Patrika, Bartaman, Sangbad Pratidin, Jago Bangla, Aajkaal, Dainik Statesman and Ganashakti are widely circulated. Popular English language newspapers published and sold in Kolkata include the Times of India, Hindustan Times, The Hindu, The Indian Express, The Statesman, The Telegraph and Asian Age. Some major periodicals are Desh, Sananda, Unish Kuri, Kindle, Anandalok and Anandamela. Being the biggest trading market in Eastern India, Kolkata has a substantial readership of many financial dailies including The Economic Times, The Financial Express, Business Line and Business Standard.[71] Vernacular newspapers such as those in Hindi, Gujarati, Oriya, Urdu, Punjabi and Chinese are also read by a minority. (AIR), the state-owned radio broadcaster, airs several AM radio stations in the city. Kolkata has 12 local FM radio stations, including two from AIR. The state-owned television broadcaster Doordarshan provides two free terrestrial channels, while four MSO provide a mix of Bengali, Hindi, English and other regional channels via cable. Bengali 24-hour television news channels include STAR Ananda, Tara Newz, Kolkata TV, 24 Ghanta, Ne Bangla, News Time and Channel 10.

Transport

Kazi Nazrul Islam Sarani (VIP Road), a busy thoroughfare connecting the city with airport
Kolkata is the only Indian city with trams
(2nd Hoogly Bridge) connecting Kolkata with Howrah

Public transport is provided by the Kolkata suburban railway, the Kolkata Metro, trams and buses. The suburban network is extensive and extends into the distant suburbs.

The Kolkata Metro, run by the Indian Railways, is the oldest underground system in India since 1984.[72] It runs parallel to the River Hooghly and spans the north-south length of the city covering a distance of 22.3 km. Buses are the preferred mode of transport and are run by both government agencies and private operators. Kolkata is India's only city to have a tram network, operated by Calcutta Tramways Company.[73] The slow-moving tram services are restricted to certain areas of the city. Water-logging due to heavy rains during the monsoon sometimes interrupts the public transport.[74][75]

Hired forms of mechanised transport include the yellow metered taxis, while auto rickshaws ply in specific routes. Almost all the taxis in Kolkata are Ambassadors. This is unlike most other cities where Tata Indicas or Fiats are more common. In some areas of the city, cycle rickshaws and hand-pulled rickshaws are also patronised by the public for short distances. Private owned vehicles are less in number and usage compared to other major cities due to the abundance in both variety and number of public vehicles.[76] However, the city witnessed a steady increase in the number of registered vehicles; 2002 data showed an increase of 44% over a period of seven years.[77] The road space (matched with population density) in the city is only 6%, compared to 23% in Delhi and 17% in Mumbai, creating major traffic problems.[78] Kolkata Metro Railway and a number of new roads and flyovers have decongested the traffic to some extent.

Howrah Bridge, a major transport system.

Kolkata has three major long distance railway stations at Howrah, Kolkata (Chitpur) and Sealdah. A third station named Kolkata has been launched at Chitpur in early 2006.[79] The city is the headquarters of two divisions of the Indian Railways — Eastern Railway and South Eastern Railway.[80]

The Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose International Airport at Dum Dum to the north of the city, operates both domestic and international flights. The airport is presently being upgraded to accommodate increased air traffic. Kolkata is also a major river port of eastern India. The Kolkata Port Trust manages both the Kolkata and Haldia docks.[81] There are passenger services to Port Blair in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and cargo ship service to various ports in India and abroad, operated by the Shipping Corporation of India. There are ferry services as well, connecting Kolkata with its twin city of Howrah.

Demographics

Religions in Kolkata[83]
Religion Percent
Hindu
  
 73%
Muslim
  
 23%
Christian
  
 2%
Jains
  
 1%

Residents of Kolkata are called Calcuttans. As of 2001, Kolkata city had a population of 4,580,544, while the urban agglomeration had a population of 13,216,546. Current estimates for 2009 project the city's population to be 5,080,519.[7] The sex ratio is 928 females per 1000 males[84] – which is lower than the national average, because many working males come from rural areas and less-developed states (mainly Bihar,UP), where they leave behind their families. Kolkata's literacy rate of 81%[85] exceeds the all-India average of 66%.[86] Kolkata Municipal Corporation area has registered a growth rate of 4.1%, which is the lowest among the million-plus cities in India.[87]

Bengali comprise the majority of Kolkata's population , with Marwaris and Bihari (mainly migrant labourers) communities forming a large portion of the minorities .[88] Some of Kolkata's minor communities include Chinese, Tamils, Nepalis, Oriyas, Telugus, Assamese, Gujaratis, Anglo-Indians, Armenians, Greeks, Tibetans, Maharashtrians, Punjabis and Parsis.

Bengali is the dominant language spoken in Kolkata, which also serves as the Official State Language. English is also used ,specially among the White collar work force.[4]

According to the census, 73% of the population in Kolkata is Hindu, 23% Muslim, 2% Christian and 1% Jains. Other minorities such as Sikhs, Buddhist, Jews and Zoroastrian constitute the rest of the city's population.[83] 1.5 million people, who constitute about a third of the city's population, live in 2,011 registered and 3,500 unregistered (occupied by squatters) slums.[89]

Kolkata reported 67.6% of total Special and Local Laws (SLL) crimes registered in 35 Indian mega cities in 2004.[90] Kolkata police district registered 10,757 IPC cases in 2004, which was 10th highest in the country.[91] The crime rate in the city was 71 per 100,000 against the national rate of 167.7 in 2006, which is the lowest among all the mega cities in India.[92]

Culture

Dakshineswar Kali Temple in Kolkata
Kolkata is a centre of culture in India. Shown here is the National Library
Ma Durga Idol at Maddox Square

Kolkata has long been known for its literary, artistic and revolutionary heritage. As the former capital of India, Kolkata was the birthplace of modern Indian literary and artistic thought. Kolkatans tend to have a special appreciation for art and literature; its tradition of welcoming new talent has made it a City of Furious Creative Energy.[93] For these reasons, Kolkata has often been dubbed as the Cultural Capital of India or the Literary Capital of India.[5]

The stunning beauty of Victoria Memorial in Kolkata at dusk.
The Durga Puja pandal at muhammad ali park in Kolkata is known for its social themes.

A characteristic feature of Kolkata is the para or neighbourhoods having a strong sense of community. Typically, every para has its own community club with a clubroom and often, a playing field. People here habitually indulge in adda or leisurely chat, and these adda sessions are often a form of freestyle intellectual conversation.[94] The city has a tradition of political graffiti depicting everything from outrageous slander to witty banter and limericks, caricatures to propaganda.

Kolkata has many buildings adorned with Gothic, Baroque, Roman, Oriental and Indo-Islamic (including Mughal) motifs. Several major buildings of the Colonial period are well maintained and have been declared "heritage structures", while others are in various stages of decay. Established in 1814, the Indian Museum is the oldest museum in Asia and houses vast collection of Indian natural history and Indian art.[95] The Victoria Memorial, one of the major tourist attractions in Kolkata, has a museum documenting the city's history. The National Library of India is India's leading public library. Academy of Fine Arts and other art galleries hold regular art exhibitions.

The city has a tradition of dramas in the form of jatra (a kind of folk-theatre), theatres and Group Theaters. Kolkata is the home of the Bengali cinema industry, dubbed "Tollywood" after Tollygunj, the location of Bengali movie studios. Its long tradition of Art-Film making includes globally acclaimed directors such as Academy Award winning director Satyajit Ray, Mrinal Sen, Tapan Sinha, Ritwik Ghatak and contemporary directors such as Aparna Sen, Buddhadeb Dasgupta and Rituparno Ghosh.

Key elements of Kolkata's cuisine include rice and Machher jhol (fish curry),[96] with roshogolla, sandesh and mishti dohi (sweet yoghurt) as dessert. Bengal's vast repertoire of fish-based dishes includes various eelish preparations (a favorite among Bengalis). Vegetarian cuisines are sometimes without onion and garlic. Street foods such as beguni (fried battered eggplant slices), kati roll (flatbread roll with vegetable or chicken, mutton, or egg stuffing), phuchka (deep fried crêpe with tamarind and lentil sauce) and Indian Chinese cuisine from China Town in the eastern parts of the city are quite popular.[97][98]

Bengali women commonly wear the shaŗi as per tradition and global/western outfits. Among men, western dressing has greater acceptance, though the traditional dhoti and panjabi/kurta comes to life on festivals.

Durga Puja is the most important and the most glamorous event in Kolkata.[99] It usually takes place in the month of October, although it can also fall in September or November, depending on the traditional calendar. Other notable festivals include Jagaddhatri Puja, Diwali, Saraswati puja, Eid, Holi, Christmas, poila boishak (new year), Rath Yatra and Poush parbon (harvest festival). Some of the cultural festivals are Kolkata Book Fair, Dover Lane music festival, Kolkata Film Festival and National Theatre Festival.

The Kolkata Book Fair, one of the largest book fair in India.

Bengal has been nourished with a rich heritage of literature. In the nineteenth and twentieth century, Bengali literature was modernized in the works of authors such as Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay, Michael Madhusudan Dutt, Rabindranath Tagore, Kazi Nazrul Islam and Sarat Chandra Chattopadhyay. The rich literary tradition set by these authors has been carried forward in the works of Jibanananda Das, Bibhutibhushan Bandopadhyay, Tarashankar Bandopadhyay, Manik Bandopadhyay, Ashapurna Devi, Shirshendu Mukhopadhyay, Buddhadeb Guha, Mahashweta Devi, Samaresh Majumdar, Sanjeev Chattopadhyay and Sunil Gangopadhyay among others.

The city is also noted for its appreciation of Rabindrasangeet and Indian classical music as well as Bengali folk music such as baul and kirtans and gajan, and modern songs including Bengali adhunik songs. From the early 1990s, there has been an emergence of new genres of music, including the emergence of what has been called Bengali Jeebonmukhi Gaan (a modern genre based on realism) by artists like Anjan Dutta, Kabir Suman, Nachiketa and folk/alternative/rock bands like Moheener Ghoraguli, Chandrabindoo, Bhoomi, Cactus and Fossils.

Education

The Indian Institute of Management, one of the best business schools in India
University of Calcutta , a renowned seat of learning, and the oldest western style university in South Asia

Kolkata's schools are either run by the state government or by private (many of which are religious) organisations. Schools mainly use Bengali or English as the medium of instruction, though Urdu is also used , especially in Central Kolkata. The schools are affiliated with the West Bengal Board of Secondary Education, the Indian Certificate of Secondary Education (ICSE), the Central Board for Secondary Education (CBSE), the National Institute of Open School (NIOS) and the A-Level (British Curriculum). Under the 10+2+3 plan, after completing their secondary education, students typically enroll in a 2 year junior college (also known as a pre-university) or in schools with a higher secondary facility affiliated with West Bengal Council of Higher Secondary Education, ICSE or CBSE. Students usually choose from one of three streams — liberal arts, commerce, or science, though vocational streams are also available. Upon completing the required coursework, students may enrol in general or professional degree programmes.

Indian Museum Kolkata

Kolkata houses nine universities and numerous colleges affiliated to them or to other universities located outside. The University of Calcutta (founded in 1857) has 153 affiliated colleges.[100] Bengal Engineering & Science University and Jadavpur University are notable engineering universities. Calcutta Medical College is the first institution teaching modern medicine in Asia.[101] Other notable institutions are Presidency College, St. Xavier's College, Bethune College (the first women's college in India) and Scottish Church College. Some institutions of national importance are the Asiatic Society, Bose Institute, S.N. Bose National Centre for Basic Sciences, the Indian Statistical Institute, the Indian Institute of Management, the Indian Association for the Cultivation of Science, the Variable Energy Cyclotron Centre, the Saha Institute of Nuclear Physics, the Centre for Studies in Social Sciences, Calcutta, the West Bengal National University of Juridical Sciences, the Marine Engineering and Research Institute, the Rabindra Bharati University, the Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, the Calcutta Mathematical Society, the Indian Institute of Social Welfare and Business Management, the West Bengal University of Technology and the National Institute of Fashion Technology.

Sports

Eden Gardens,the second Largest cricket stadium in the world.

Association football (sometimes referred to as 'soccer'), cricket and field hockey are popular sports in the city. Kolkata, a major centre of football activity in India and home of top national football clubs such as Mohun Bagan AC, Chirag United S.C., Mohammedan Sporting Club and East Bengal, is known as Mecca of Indian Football.[102] Calcutta Football League, which started in 1898, is the oldest football league in Asia. Mohun Bagan AC, one of the oldest football clubs in Asia, is the only club to be entitled 'National Club of India'. Kolkata is also home to Kolkata Knight Riders IPL cricket team franchise.

As in the rest of India, cricket is extremely popular and is played throughout the city in its grounds and streets. Tournaments, especially those involving outdoor games like cricket, football, and badminton or indoor games like carrom are regularly organized on an inter-locality or inter-club basis. The maidan area hosts several minor football and cricket clubs and coaching institutes.

Salt Lake Stadium, second largest stadium in the world.

Notable sports stars from Kolkata include former Indian national cricket captains Sourav Ganguly and Pankaj Roy. Olympic tennis bronze medallist Leander Paes. Former football stars include Olympic medalist Sailen Manna, Chuni Goswami, P.K. Banerjee, and Subrata Bhattacharya.

The city is known for its large stadia. The Eden Gardens is one of only two 100,000-seat cricket stadiums in the world.[103] Salt Lake Stadium (also known as Yuva Bharati Krirangan)—a multi-use stadium—is the world's second largest capacity football stadium.[104][105] Calcutta Cricket and Football Club is the second-oldest cricket club in the world.[106] Kolkata has three 18-hole golf courses at the Royal Calcutta Golf Club (the first golf club in the world outside Britain),[107] Tollygunge Club and Fort William. The Royal Calcutta Turf Club (RCTC) holds regular equestrian races and polo matches. The Calcutta Polo Club is now considered as the oldest polo club of the world.[108] The Calcutta South Club is the venue for some national and international tennis tournaments. From 2005, Sunfeast Open, a Tier-III tournament of Women's Tennis Association Tour, takes place in Netaji Indoor Stadium. The Calcutta Rowing Club hosts regular rowing races and training. Although it is a minor sport, Kolkata is considered the "capital" of rugby union in India. The city also gives its name to the name of the oldest international tournament in rugby union, the Calcutta Cup, which is of Indian workmanship.

Sister cities

Kolkata has sister city relationships with the following cities of the world.[109][110]

Sister City Country
Long Beach United States United States
Dallas
Odessa Ukraine Ukraine
Macau MacauChina S.A.R.
Thessaloniki Greece Greece
Naples Italy Italy
Dhaka Bangladesh Bangladesh

See also

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 "Sovan Chatterjee to be new Kolkata mayor". Yahoo.com. http://in.news.yahoo.com/43/20100606/818/tnl-sovan-chatterjee-to-be-new-kolkata-m.html. Retrieved June 6, 2010. 
  2. ↑ "India: largest cities and towns and statistics of their population". World Gazetteer. http://www.world-gazetteer.com/wg.php?x=&men=gcis&lng=en&dat=32&geo=-104&srt=npan&col=aohdq&pt=c&va=&srt=pnan. Retrieved 10 March 2010. 
  3. ↑ "India: metropolitan areas". World Gazetteer. http://www.world-gazetteer.com/wg.php?x=&men=gcis&lng=en&dat=80&geo=-104&srt=pnan&col=aohdq&msz=1500&va=&pt=a. Retrieved 10 March 2010. 
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Official Language - Constitutional/Statutory Provisions World Gazetteer. Retrieved 8 February 2010.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Calcutta Travel Advice
  6. ↑ The Monthly Repository and Library of Entertaining Knowledge. 1833. p. 338. http://books.google.com/?id=F8URAAAAYAAJ&dq=Kolkata+east+bank+of+river+Hooghly. 
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 World Gazetteer: India - largest cities and towns and statistics of their population Retrieved 4 June 2009
  8. ↑ "World Urbanization Prospects: The 2005 revision" (PDF). http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/WUP2005/2005WUP_DataTables11.pdf. 
  9. ↑ (Mukherjee 1991)
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 "Kolkata: History" (in Bangla). Calcuttaweb.com. http://www.calcuttaweb.com/history.shtml. Retrieved 2007-02-18. 
  11. ↑ Nair, P. Thankappan (1986). "Calcutta in the 17th century". Firma KLM Private Limited. 
  12. ↑ P. R. Sarkar, Path Calte Itikatha, 1985, AMPublications
  13. ↑ Easwaran, Kenny. "The Politics of Name Changes in India". OCF, UC Berkeley. http://www.ocf.berkeley.edu/~easwaran/papers/india.html. Retrieved 2007-08-12. 
  14. ↑ "Arrests linked to Mumbai attacks". BBC. 2008-12-06. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/7768770.stm. Retrieved 2008-12-06. 
  15. ↑ "Weather forecast". BBC. http://news.bbc.co.uk/weather/forecast/145. Retrieved 2009-09-01. 
  16. ↑ "History". Yahoo! Pte Ltd. http://sg.travel.yahoo.com/guide/asia/india/kolkata/history.html. Retrieved 2006-05-08. 
  17. ↑ Das S (2003-01-15). "Pre-Raj crown on Clive House- Abode of historical riches to be museum". The Telegraph, Kolkata, India. http://www.telegraphindia.com/1030115/asp/frontpage/story_1575128.asp. Retrieved 2006-04-26. 
  18. ↑ Gupta, Subhrangshu (18 May 2003). "Job Charnock not Kolkata founder: HC Says city has no foundation day". Nation (The Tribune). http://www.tribuneindia.com/2003/20030518/nation.htm#3. Retrieved 2006-12-07. 
  19. ↑ "William, Fort". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9077064/Fort-William. Retrieved 2007-09-01. 
  20. ↑ "Calcutta". Encyclopædia Britannica. 1911. http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Calcutta. Retrieved 2007-09-18. 
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 "History of Kolkata". Kolkathub.com. http://www.kolkatahub.com/travel-in-kolkata/history-of-kolkata.html. Retrieved 2007-09-04. 
  22. ↑ Chuahan, Baldev (7 August 2007). "Shimla - more than just Raj nostalgia". IANS. The Indian Star. http://www.theindianstar.com/index.php?udn=2007-12-02&uan=1197. Retrieved 2009-03-08. 
  23. ↑ Dutta, Krishna. "Calcutta; A Cultural and Literary History". Interlink Books. http://www.interlinkbooks.com/BooksC/Calcutta.html. Retrieved 2007-10-11. 
  24. ↑ Pati, Biswamoy (2006). "Narcotics and empire". Frontline (The Hindu) 23 (10). Archived from the original on June 11, 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20080611083355/http://www.hinduonnet.com/fline/fl2310/stories/20060602000307600.htm. Retrieved 2007-09-04. 
  25. ↑ Hardgrave, Jr, Robert L. (1990). "A Portrait of Black Town: Balthazard Solvyns in Calcutta, 1791–1804". In Pratapaditya Pal. Changing Visions, Lasting Images: Calcutta Through 300 Years. Bombay: Marg Publications. pp. 31–46. ISBN 8185026114. http://www.laits.utexas.edu/solvyns-project/hardgraveportrait.html. Retrieved 2007-06-29. 
  26. ↑ Jack I. (2001). "Introduction to (Chaudhuri 2001, pp. v-xi) URL accessed on 2006-04-26.
  27. ↑ Roy, Ranjit. "Swadeshi Movement". Banglapedia. Asiatic Society of Bangladesh. http://banglapedia.search.com.bd/HT/S_0628.htm. Retrieved 2007-09-14. 
  28. ↑ Hall, P (2002). Cities of Tomorrow. Blackwell Publishing. pp. 198–206. ISBN 0631232524. 
  29. ↑ Randhawa K. "The bombing of Calcutta by the Japanese". BBC. http://www.bbc.co.uk/ww2peopleswar/stories/50/a5756150.shtml. Retrieved 2006-04-26. 
  30. ↑ "World War 2 timelines 1939–1945 - Asian mainland 1942". http://www.worldwar-2.net/timelines/asia-and-the-pacific/asian-mainland/asian-mainland-index-1942.htm. Retrieved 2008-10-13. 
  31. ↑ "Pacific War Timeline - New Zealanders in the Pacific War". http://www.nzhistory.net.nz/war/war-in-the-pacific/timeline. Retrieved 2008-10-13. 
  32. ↑ (Sen 1973)
  33. ↑ Burrows, Frederick (1946). Report to Viceroy Lord Wavell. The British Library IOR: L/P&J/8/655 f.f. 95, 96-107. 
  34. ↑ Das, Suranjan (May 2000). "The 1992 Calcutta Riot in Historical Continuum: A Relapse into 'Communal Fury'?". Modern Asian Studies (Cambridge University Press) 34 (2): 281–306. doi:10.1017/S0026749X0000336X. http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0026-749X(200005)34%3A2%3C281%3AT1CRIH%3E2.0.CO%3B2-4. 
  35. ↑ Suhrawardy HS (1987). "Direct Action Day". In Talukdar, MHR. (ed.). Memoirs of Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy. University Press of Bangladesh. pp. 55–56. ISBN 9840510878. http://www.globalwebpost.com/farooqm/study_res/suhrawardy/direct_action.html. Retrieved 2006-04-24. 
  36. ↑ (Gandhi 1992, p. 497)
  37. ↑ "Calcutta". Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica. 2009. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/89203/Kolkata. Retrieved 2009-03-15.  and Judith Vidal-Hall, "Naxalites", in Index on Censorship, Volume 35, Number 4 (2006). p. 73.
  38. ↑ (Bennett & Hindle 1996, pp. 63–70)
  39. ↑ Biswas S (2006-04-16). "Calcutta's colorless campaign". BBC. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4909832.stm. Retrieved 2006-04-26. 
  40. ↑ (Roy & Alsayyad 2004)
  41. ↑ 41.0 41.1 Datta T (2006-03-22). "Rising Kolkata's winners and losers". BBC Radio 4's Crossing Continents. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/crossing_continents/4830762.stm. Retrieved 2006-04-26. 
  42. ↑ NASA image.
  43. ↑ "An Introduction". History of Kolkata. Catchcal.com. http://www.catchcal.com/kaleidoscope/calcutta.asp. Retrieved 2007-08-29. 
  44. ↑ Roy Chadhuri, S.; Thakur, A. R. (2006-07-25). "Microbial genetic resource mapping of East Calcutta wetlands" (PDF). Current Science (Indian Academy of Sciences) 91 (2): 212–217. http://www.ias.ac.in/currsci/jul252006/212.pdf. Retrieved 2007-09-02. 
  45. ↑ Bunting SW, Kundu N, Mukherjee M. "Situation Analysis. Production Systems and Natural Resources Use in PU Kolkata" (PDF). Institute of Aquaculture, University of Stirling, Stirling, UK. p. 3. http://www.dfid.stir.ac.uk/dfid/nrsp/download/sitanal.pdf. Retrieved 2006-04-26. 
  46. ↑ 46.0 46.1 "Hazard profiles of Indian districts" (PDF). National Capacity Building Project in Disaster Management. UNDP. Archived from the original on 2006-05-19. http://web.archive.org/web/20060519100611/http://www.undp.org.in/dmweb/hazardprofile.pdf. Retrieved 2006-08-23. 
  47. ↑ 47.0 47.1 47.2 "007 Kolkata (India)" (PDF). World Association of the Major Metropolises. http://www.metropolis.org/upload/file/438_007_kolkata_eng.pdf. Retrieved 2007-08-31. 
  48. ↑ "Kolkata Postal Codes". bloom9.com. http://www.bloom9.com/info/postal_codes.asp. Retrieved 2007-08-29. 
  49. ↑ deduced from the satellite map of the city, from NASA
  50. ↑ 50.0 50.1 50.2 "Weatherbase entry for Kolkata". Canty and Associates LLC. http://www.weatherbase.com/weather/weatherall.php3?s=090824&refer=&units=metric. Retrieved 2006-04-26. 
  51. ↑ "kal Baisakhi". Glossary of Meteorology. American Meteorological Society. http://amsglossary.allenpress.com/glossary/search?id=kal-baisakhi1. Retrieved 2006-09-05. 
  52. ↑ Khichar, M.L.; Ram Niwas (14 July 2003). "Know your monsoon". Agriculture Tribune, The Tribune. The Tribune Trust. http://www.tribuneindia.com/2003/20030714/agro.htm#2. Retrieved 2007-06-09. 
  53. ↑ 53.0 53.1 "Calcutta: Not 'The City of Joy'". Gaia: Environmental Information System. http://www.ess.co.at/GAIA/CASES/IND/CAL/CALmain.html. Retrieved 2006-04-26. 
  54. ↑ Central Pollution Control Board. "Ambient Air Quality in Seven Major Cities During 2002". Ministry of Environment & Forests, Govt of India. Archived from the original on 2006-08-28. http://web.archive.org/web/20060828004902/http://cpcb.nic.in/mcity/m2002.htm. Retrieved 2006-04-26. 
  55. ↑ http://www.telegraphindia.com/1081030/jsp/calcutta/story_10035984.jsp
  56. ↑ Bhaumik, Subir (17 May 2007). "Oxygen supplies for India police". South Asia (BBC). http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/6665803.stm. Retrieved 2007-06-23. 
  57. ↑ "Kolkata". http://www.worldweather.org/066/c00225.htm. Retrieved 2010-03-21. 
  58. ↑ "Genesis and Growth of the Calcutta Stock Exchange". Calcutta Stock Exchange Association Ltd. http://www.cse-india.com/cse_factbook.htm. Retrieved 2006-04-26. 
  59. ↑ "Doing Business in India 2009". World Bank. http://www.doingbusiness.org/subnational/exploreeconomies/India2009.aspx. Retrieved 2010-06-08. 
  60. ↑ Chakravorty S (2000). "From Colonial City to Global City? The Far-From-Complete Spatial Transformation of Calcutta" in (Marcuse & van Kempen 2000, pp. 56–77)
  61. ↑ Ganguly, Deepankar. "Hawkers stay as Rs. 265 crore talks". The Telegraph, 30 November 2006. http://www.telegraphindia.com/1061130/asp/frontpage/story_7071031.asp. Retrieved 2008-02-16. 
  62. ↑ Sambit Saha (2003-09-09). "Nathula trade may spur business in NE". rediff.com. http://www.rediff.com/money/2003/sep/09trading.htm. Retrieved 2007-09-18. 
  63. ↑ C. Raja Mohan (2007-07-16). "A foreign policy for the East". The Hindu. http://www.hindu.com/2004/07/16/stories/2004071601841000.htm. Retrieved 2007-09-18. 
  64. ↑ "Fire rule must be enforced: Kolkata top cop". IBNLive.in. 2008-07-11. http://ibnlive.in.com/news/fire-rule-must-be-enforced-kolkata-top-cop/111986-3.html?from=tn?from=rssfeed. Retrieved 2008-07-16. 
  65. ↑ Source: The Kolkata Municipal Corporation Act, 1980.
  66. ↑ "About Kolkata Municipal Corporation". Kolkata Municipal Corporation. http://www.kolkatamycity.com/about_kmc_overview.asp. Retrieved 2006-04-26. 
  67. ↑ "Sovan Chatterjee to be Kolkata Mayor". Kolkata Municipal Corporation. http://www.telegraphindia.com/1100607/jsp/calcutta/story_12537013.jsp. Retrieved Jun 07, 2010. 
  68. ↑ "West Bengal Assembly Elections 2006". Indian Elections. http://www.indian-elections.com/assembly-elections/west-bengal/. Retrieved 2006-09-05. 
  69. ↑ "Sound Practices Composting". United Nations Environment Programme. http://www.unep.or.jp/ietc/ESTdir/Pub/MSW/SP/SP4/SP4_2.asp. Retrieved 2006-04-26. 
  70. ↑ Dheri SK, Misra GC. "Fire: Blazing Questions" (PDF). indiadisasters.org. Archived from the original on 2004-12-24. http://web.archive.org/web/20041224200247/http://www.indiadisasters.org/idrpdf/Other+Disasters/Otherdisasters+Fire.PDF. Retrieved 2006-04-26. 
  71. ↑ "Business Development Mission to India 29 November – 5 December 2006" (PDF). International Trade Administration. http://trade.gov/press/press_releases/2006/india_mission_statement_112006.pdf. Retrieved 2007-10-13. 
  72. ↑ "About Kolkata Metro". Kolkata Metro. http://www.kolmetro.com/. Retrieved 2007-09-01. 
  73. ↑ "Intra-city train travel". reaching India. Times Internet Limited. http://timesfoundation.indiatimes.com/articleshow/657741.cms. Retrieved 2007-08-31. 
  74. ↑ "HC admits PIL on waterlogging". Times of India (Times Internet Limited). 11 July 2007. http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/Kolkata/HC_admits_PIL_on_waterlogging/articleshow/2193171.cms. Retrieved 2007-07-18 Dainik Jagran hindi news paper daily in kolkata.. 
  75. ↑ "Rain abates, but water logging paralyses normal life in Kolkata". dailyindia.com (DailyIndia.com). 4 July 2007. http://www.dailyindia.com/show/154671.php/Rain-abates-but-water-logging-paralyses-normal-life-in-Kolkata. Retrieved 2007-07-18. 
  76. ↑ "Table E2 Registered Motor Vehicles in Million-plus Cities,1991 to 1996 (As on 31 March)". National Institute of Urban Affairs. Archived from the original on 2005-02-19. http://web.archive.org/web/20050219033026/http://www.niua.org/newniuaorg/table_e2.htm. Retrieved 2006-04-26. 
  77. ↑ "Traffic Accident Characteristics of Kolkata" (PDF). UNESCAP. http://www.unescap.org/ttdw/Publications/TPTS_pubs/bulletin74/bulletin74_ch5.pdf. Retrieved 2006-07-05. 
  78. ↑ "Call to ensure traffic discipline in Kolkata". The Hindu Business Line. 2004-09-05. http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/2004/09/06/stories/2004090600791300.htm. Retrieved 2006-04-26. 
  79. ↑ "New station flag-off- Amenities added". The Telegraph. 2006-02-20. http://www.telegraphindia.com/1060220/asp/calcutta/story_5868502.asp. Retrieved 2007-09-02. 
  80. ↑ "Geography : Railway Zones". IRFCA.org. Indian Railways Fan Club. http://www.irfca.org/faq/faq-geog.html. Retrieved 2007-08-31. 
  81. ↑ "Salient Physical Features". Kolkata Port Trust. Kolkata Port Trust, India. http://www.kolkataporttrust.gov.in/index_new.html. Retrieved 2007-06-09. 
  82. ↑ "Table 7.2.11". mospi.gov.in. http://mospi.gov.in/comenv2000tab7.2.11.htm. Retrieved 2008-06-23. 
  83. ↑ 83.0 83.1 "Census GIS Household". Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner, India. http://www.censusindiamaps.net/page/Religion_WhizMap1/housemap.htm. Retrieved 2006-04-26. 
  84. ↑ Directorate of Census Operations, West Bengal (2003). "Table-4: Population, Decadal Growth Rate, Density and General Sex Ratio by Residence and Sex, West Bengal/ District/ Sub District, 1991 and 2001". Census of India 2001: Provisional Population Totals, West Bengal. http://web.cmc.net.in/wbcensus/DataTables/02/FrameTable4_17.htm. Retrieved 2006-04-26. 
  85. ↑ Directorate of Census Operations, West Bengal (2003). "Table 11 Literacy Rate with Decadal Percentage Point Increase (in brackets) * by Residence and Sex, West Bengal / District 1951–2001". http://web.cmc.net.in/wbcensus/DataTables/02/FrameTable-11.htm. Retrieved 2006-04-26. 
  86. ↑ "Number of Literates & Literacy Rate". India at a Glance. Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India. Archived from the original on 2007-04-16. http://web.archive.org/web/20070416033451/http://censusindia.gov.in/Census_Data_2001/India_at_Glance/literates1.html. Retrieved 2006-12-05. 
  87. ↑ "Highlights: Cities with more than one Million Population". Census of India 2001 (Provisional). Office of the Registrar General, India. 2001-09-13. Archived from the original on 2007-01-05. http://web.archive.org/web/20070105033650/http://www.censusindia.net/results/millioncities_analysis.html. Retrieved 2006-08-18. 
  88. ↑ "Basic Statistics of Kolkata". KolkataMyCity.com. Archived from the original on May 16, 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20080516090951/http://www.kolkatamycity.com/basic_stat.asp. Retrieved 2008-11-02. 
  89. ↑ Kundu N. "Understanding slums: Case Studies for the Global Report on Human Settlements 2003. The Case of Kolkata, India" (PDF). Development Planning Unit. University College, London. p. 6. http://www.ucl.ac.uk/dpu-projects/Global_Report/pdfs/Kolkata_bw.pdf. Retrieved 2006-04-26. 
  90. ↑ National Crime Records Bureau (2004). "General Crime Statistics Snapshots 2004" (PDF). Crime in India-2004. Ministry of Home Affairs. p. 1. http://ncrb.nic.in/crime2004/cii-2004/Snapshots.pdf. Retrieved 2006-04-26. 
  91. ↑ National Crime Records Bureau (2004). "Executive Summary" (PDF). Crime in India-2004. Ministry of Home Affairs. p. 34. http://ncrb.nic.in/crime2004/cii-2004/CHAP1.pdf. Retrieved 2006-04-26. 
  92. ↑ National Crime Records Bureau (2006). "Crimes in Mega Cities" (PDF). Crime in India-2006. Ministry of Home Affairs. http://ncrb.nic.in/cii2006/cii-2006/CHAP2.pdf. Retrieved 2008-05-09. 
  93. ↑ Sinha P (1990). "Kolkata and the Currents of History". In Chaudhuri S. (ed.). Kolkata — The Living City. Volume 1: The Past. Oxford University Press, Oxford.. 
    Cited by: Heierstad G (2003). "Nandikar: Staging Globalisation in Kolkata and Abroad" (PDF). University of Oslo, Norway. p. 102. http://folk.uio.no/gheierst/nandikar.pdf. Retrieved 2006-04-26. 
  94. ↑ Trachtenberg P (2005-05-15). "The Chattering Masses". The New York Times. http://travel2.nytimes.com/2005/05/15/travel/tmagazine/15T-INDIA.html?_r=4&ex=1146196800&en=a1463f6efd9ecdab&ei=5070&oref=slogin&oref=slogin&oref=slogin&oref=slogin. Retrieved 2006-04-26. 
  95. ↑ "History of Indian museum". The Indian Museum of Kolkata. http://www.indianmuseumkolkata.org/history.html. Retrieved 2006-04-23. 
  96. ↑ Gertjan de Graaf, Abdul Latif. "Development of freshwater fish farming and poverty alleviation: A case study from Bangladesh" (PDF). Aqua KE Government. http://govdocs.aquake.org/cgi/reprint/2003/1201/12010300.pdf. Retrieved 2006-10-22. 
  97. ↑ Saha, S (18 January 2006). "Resurrected, the kathi roll - Face-off resolved, Nizam's set to open with food court". The Telegraph. http://www.telegraphindia.com/1060118/asp/calcutta/story_5733258.asp. Retrieved 2006-10-26. 
  98. ↑ "Mobile food stalls". Bangalinet.com. http://www.bangalinet.com/mobile_foodstalls.htm. Retrieved 2006-10-26. 
  99. ↑ "Durga Puja". Festivals of Bengal. West Bengal Tourism, Government of West Bengal. http://www.wbtourism.com/fairs_festivals/durga.htm. Retrieved 2006-10-28. 
  100. ↑ Hubs of excellence
  101. ↑ Mitra, Dola (20 April 2005). "Calcutta Medical College, Calcutta". Careergraph. The Telegraph. http://www.telegraphindia.com/1050420/asp/careergraph/story_4638691.asp. Retrieved 2007-10-20. 
  102. ↑ Prabhakaran, Shaji (18 January 2003). "Football in India - A Fact File". LongLiveSoccer.com. http://www.longlivesoccer.com/indiafootball.htm. Retrieved 2006-10-26. 
  103. ↑ "India - Eden Gardens (Kolkata)". Cricket Web. http://www.cricketweb.net/country/venue.php?CategoryIDAuto=12&VenueIDAuto=26. Retrieved 2006-10-26. 
  104. ↑ "100 000+ Stadiums". World Stadiums. http://www.worldstadiums.com/stadium_menu/stadium_list/100000.shtml. Retrieved 2006-10-26. 
  105. ↑ "The Asian Football Stadiums (30.000+ capacity)". Gunther Lades. http://www.fussballtempel.net/afc/listeafc.html. Retrieved 2006-10-26. 
  106. ↑ Raju, Mukherji (14 March 2005). "Seven Years? Head Start". The Telegraph. http://www.telegraphindia.com/1050314/asp/opinion/story_4428341.asp. Retrieved 2006-10-26. 
  107. ↑ "Royal Calcutta Golf Club". Encyclopaedia Britannica. http://www.britannica.com/eb/topic-511285/Royal-Calcutta-Golf-Club. Retrieved 2007-08-30. 
  108. ↑ "History of Polo". Hurlingham Polo Association. http://www.hpa-polo.co.uk/about/history_polo.asp. Retrieved 2007-08-30. 
  109. ↑ "Brand Bengal to get a bite of the Big Apple". Timesofindia.indiatimes.com. http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/416228.cms. Retrieved 2004-03-03. 
  110. ↑ "Some images are synonymous with Kolkata". India Today. January 2, 2009. http://indiatoday.intoday.in/site/Story/24191/Simply%20Kolkata/Some+images+are+synonymous+with+Kolkata.html. Retrieved 2009-03-03. 

Further reading

  • Bennett, A; Hindle, J (1996). London Review of Books: An Anthology. Verso. pp. 63–70. ISBN 185984121X 
  • Chaudhuri, NC (2001). The Autobiography of an Unknown Indian. New York Review of Books. ISBN 094032282X 
  • Chaudhuri, S (1995). Calcutta: The Living City. Vol I and Vol II. Oxford University Press, USA. ISBN 0195636988 
  • Raj Bhavan of Kolkata: Two Hundred Years of Grandeur. Not Avail. 2003. xii, 140. ISBN 0670049956. http://www.amazon.com/Raj-Bhavan-Kolkata-Hundred-Grandeur/dp/0670049956/ref=sr_1_5?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1275892771&sr=8-5. 
  • Gandhi, R (1992). Patel: A Life. Navajivan. ISBN ASIN B0006EYQ0A 
  • Marcuse, P; van Kempen, R (2000). Globalizing Cities: A New Spatial Order?. Blackwell Publishers. ISBN 0631212906 
  • Marston, D (2001). The Seven Year's War. Osprey Publishing. ISBN 1841761915 
  • Mitra, A (1976). Calcutta Diary. Routledge (UK). ISBN 0714630829 
  • Mukherjee, SC (1991). The changing face of Calcutta: An architectural approach : Calcutta, 300. Government of West Bengal. ISBN B0000D6TXX 
  • Roy, A (2002). City Requiem, Calcutta: Gender and The Politics of Poverty. University of Minnesota Press. ISBN 0816639329 
  • Roy, A; Alsayyad, N (2004). Urban Informality: Transnational Perspectives from the Middle East, Latin America and South Asia. Lexington Books. ISBN 0739107410 
  • Sen, A (1973). Poverty and Famines. Oxford University Press, USA. ISBN 0-19-828463-2 
  • Singh, S (2003). Lonely Planet India (10 ed.). Lonely Planet. ISBN 1740594215 
  • Thomas, FC (1977). Calcutta Poor: Elegies on a City Above Pretense. M.E. Sharpe. ISBN 1563249812 
  • Dutta, Krishna (2003). Calcutta: a cultural and literary history. Signal, 2003. ISBN 1-902669-59-2 
  • Government of India, Giuliana (2009). Beyond multiculturalism: views from anthropology. Ashgate Publishing Limited. ISBN 978 0 7546 7173 2. 
  • C. Thomas, Frederic (1997). Calcutta poor: elegies on a city above pretense. M. E. Sharpe, Inc.. ISBN 1-56324-981-2. 
  • Ghosh, Amitav (1996). The Calcutta Chromosome: A Novel of Fevers, Delirium and Discovery. Ravi Dayal Publisher.. ISBN 81 7530 041 8. http://books.google.com/?id=XHnhZVps4EQC&printsec=frontcover&dq=calcutta&cd=9#v=onepage&q 

External links