Hypergiant
A hypergiant (luminosity class 0) is a star with a tremendous mass and luminosity, showing signs of a very high rate of mass loss.
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Characteristics
The word "hypergiant" is commonly used as a loose term for the most massive stars found, even though there are more precise definitions. In 1956, the astronomers Feast and Thackeray used the term super-supergiant (later changed into hypergiant) for stars with an absolute magnitude greater than MV = −7. In 1971, Keenan suggested that the term would only be used for supergiants showing at least one broad emission component in Hα, indicating an extended stellar atmosphere or a relatively large mass loss rate. The Keenan criterion is the one most commonly used by scientists today.[1] This means that a hypergiant does not necessarily have to be more massive than a similar supergiant. Still, the most massive stars are considered to be hypergiants, and can have masses ranging up to 100–265 solar masses.
Hypergiants are very luminous stars, up to millions of solar luminosities, and have temperatures varying widely between 3,500 K and 35,000 K. Almost all hypergiants exhibit variations in luminosity over time due to instabilities within their interiors.
Because of their high masses, the lifetime of a hypergiant is very short in astronomical timescales, only a few million years compared to around 10 billion years for stars like the Sun. Because of this, hypergiants are extremely rare and only a handful are known today.
Hypergiants should not be confused with luminous blue variables. A hypergiant is classified as such because of its size and mass loss rate, whereas a luminous blue variable is thought to be a massive blue supergiant going through an evolutionary phase where it loses a large amount of mass.
Stability
As luminosity of stars increases greatly with mass, the luminosity of hypergiants often lies very close to the Eddington limit, which is the luminosity at which the force of the star's gravity equals the radiation pressure outward. This means that the radiative flux passing through the photosphere of a hypergiant may be nearly strong enough to lift off the photosphere. Above the Eddington limit, the star would generate so much radiation that parts of its outer layers would be thrown off in massive outbursts; this would effectively restrict the star from shining at higher luminosities for longer periods.
A good candidate for hosting a continuum driven wind is Eta Carinae, one of the most massive and luminous stars ever observed. With an estimated mass of around 130 solar masses and a luminosity four million times that of the Sun, astrophysicists speculate that Eta Carinae may occasionally exceed the Eddington limit.[2] The last time might have been a series of outbursts in 1840-1860, reaching mass loss rates much higher than our current understanding of what stellar winds would allow.[3]
As opposed to line-driven stellar winds (that is, ones driven by absorbing light from the star in huge numbers of narrow spectral lines), continuum driving does not require the presence of "metallic" atoms — atoms other than hydrogen and helium, which have few such lines — in the photosphere. This is important, since most massive stars also are very metal-poor, which means that the effect must work independently of the metallicity. In the same line of reasoning, the continuum driving may also contribute to an upper mass limit even for the first generation of stars right after the Big Bang, which did not contain any metals at all.
Another theory to explain the massive outbursts of, for example, Eta Carinae is the idea of a deeply situated hydrodynamic explosion, blasting off parts of the star’s outer layers. The idea is that the star, even at luminosities below the Eddington limit, would have insufficient heat convection in the inner layers, resulting in a density inversion potentially leading to a massive explosion. The theory has however not been explored very much, and it is uncertain whether this really can happen.[4]
Known hypergiants
Hypergiants are difficult to study due to their rarity. For reasons that are currently unknown, there appears to be an upper luminosity limit for the coolest hypergiants (those colored yellow and red): none of them are brighter than around bolometric magnitude –9.5, which corresponds to roughly 500,000 times solar luminosity.
Luminous blue variables
Most luminous blue variables are classified as hypergiants, and indeed they are the most luminous stars known:
- P Cygni, in the northern constellation of Cygnus.
- S Doradus, in a nearby galaxy called the Large Magellanic Cloud, in the southern constellation of Dorado. This galaxy was also the location of Supernova 1987A, itself a hypergiant.
- Eta Carinae, inside the Keyhole Nebula (NGC 3372) in the southern constellation of Carina. Eta Carinae is extremely massive, possibly as much as 120 to 150 times the mass of the Sun, and is four to five million times as luminous.
- The Pistol Star, near the center of the Milky Way, in the constellation of Sagittarius. The Pistol Star is possibly as much as 150 times more massive than the Sun, and is about 1.7 million times more luminous.
- Several stars in the cluster Cl* 1806-20, on the other side of the Milky Way galaxy. One such star, LBV 1806-20, is the most luminous star known, from 2 to 40 million times as luminous as the Sun, and also one of the most massive.
Blue hypergiants
- Zeta¹ Scorpii, the brightest star of the OB association Scorpius OB1 and a LBV candidate.
- MWC 314, in the constellation of Aquila, another LBV candidate.
- HD 169454, in Scutum
- BD -14° 5037 near of the latter.
- Cygnus OB2-12, which some authors consider an LBV.
- R136a1 the most massive star reported so far, with an estimated mass of 265 suns.
White hypergiant
- 6 Cassiopeiae
Yellow hypergiants
Yellow hypergiants form an extremely rare class of stars, with only seven being known in our galaxy:
- Rho Cassiopeiae, in the northern constellation of Cassiopeia, is about 500,000 times as luminous as the Sun.
- HR 8752
- IRC+10420
- Also see stars in Westerlund 1.
Red hypergiants
- RW Cephei
- NML Cygni
- VX Sagittarii
- VV Cephei
- S Persei
- VY Canis Majoris has the largest diameter of any known star, 1800 to 2100 times that of the Sun. This gives it a diameter comparable to the orbit of Saturn.
See also
- List of most massive stars
References
- ↑ C. de Jager (1998). "The yellow hypergiants". Astronomy and Astrophysics Review 8: 145–180. doi:10.1007/s001590050009. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1998A%26ARv...8..145D.
- ↑ "Thus, if mass loss during these eruptions occurs via a wind, it must be a super-Eddington wind driven by continuum radiation force (e.g., electron scattering opacity) and not lines (Owocki, Gayley & Shaviv 2004, hereafter OGS; Belyanin 1999; Quinn & Paczynski 1985)."Owocki, S. P.; Allard Jan van Marle (2008). "Luminous Blue Variables & Mass Loss near the Eddington Limit". In Bresolin, Fabio; Crowther, Paul Joachim Puls; Puls, Joachim. Proceedings IAU Symposium No. 250, 2008. International Astronomical Union. doi:00.0000/X000000000000000X. http://arxiv.org/pdf/0801.2519. Retrieved 2010-02-05.
- ↑ S. P. Owocki; K. G. Gayley; N. J. Shaviv (2004). "A porosity-length formalism for photon-tiring limited mass loss from stars above the Eddington limit". Astrophysical Journal 616: 525–541. doi:10.1086/424910. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004ApJ...616..525O.
- ↑ N. Smith; S. P. Owocki (2006). "On the role of continuum driven eruptions in the evolution of very massive stars and population III stars". Astrophysical Journal 645: L45–L48. doi:10.1086/506523. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006ApJ...645L..45S.
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