Göktürks

Kök Türük
Turkic Khaganate
Khaganate
←
552–747 →
The Turkic Khaganate (green) in its earliest years.
Capital Ötüken
Language(s) Sogdian (official)[1]
Old Turkic (court)
Religion Tengrism
Political structure Khaganate
Qaghan
 - 551-553 Bumin Qaghan
 - 553-576 İstemi Yabghu
Legislature Kurultai (Qurultay)
History
 - Established 552
 - Disestablished 747
Area
 - 557 6,000,000 km2 (2,316,613 sq mi)

The Kök Türks, Göktürks (Old Turkic: Old Turkic letter UK.svgOld Turkic letter R2.svgOld Turkic letter U.svgOld Turkic letter T2.svg Türük[2][3] or Old Turkic letter UK.svgOld Turkic letter R2.svgOld Turkic letter U.svgOld Turkic letter T2.svg Old Turkic letter K.svgOld Turkic letter U.svgOld Turkic letter UK.svg Kök Türük[2][3] or Old Turkic letter K.svgOld Turkic letter R2.svgOld Turkic letter U.svgOld Turkic letter T2.svg Türük[4]; Celestial Turks)[5] were a nomadic confederation of medieval Inner Asia. Known in Chinese sources as 突厥 (Modern Chinese: Pinyin: Tūjué, Wade-Giles: T'u-chüeh, Middle Chinese (Guangyun): dʰuət-kĭwɐt), the Kök Türks under the leadership of Bumin Qaghan (d. 552) and his sons succeeded the Rouran as the main power in the region and took hold of the lucrative Silk Road trade.

The Kök Türks became the new leading element amongst the disparate steppe peoples in Central Asia, after they rebelled against the Rouran Khaganate. Under their leadership, the Turkic Khaganate rapidly expanded to rule huge territories in Central Asia. From 552 to 745, Kök Türk leadership bound together the nomadic Turkic tribes into an empire, which eventually collapsed due to a series of dynastic conflicts.

Contents

Etymology

Petroglyphs from Zavkhan Province, Mongolia, depicting Kök Türks (6th-8th century).

According to Chinese sources, the meaning of the word Tūjué was "combat helmet" (兜鍪; Pinyin: dōumóu, Wade-Giles: tou-mou), reportedly because the shape of the Jinshan (金山 jīnshān, Altai Mountains), where they lived, was similar to a combat helmet - hence they called themselves 突厥 (Tūjué / T'u-chüeh).[6][7][8]

Kök Türks is said to mean "Celestial Turks". This is consistent with "the cult of heavenly ordained rule" which was a pivotal element of the Altaic political culture before being imported to China.[9] Similarly, the name of the ruling Ashina clan probably derives from the Khotanese Sakā term for "deep blue", āššɪna.[10]. The name might also derive from a Tungusic tribe related to Aisin.[11]

Origins

The Kök Türk rulers originated from the Ashina clan, a tribe of obscure origins who lived in the northern corner of Inner Asia.

According to Book of Zhou and History of Northern Dynasties, Ashina was the subspesies of Xiongnus[6][8] and according to Book of Sui and Tongdian, they were "Mixed Foreigners" (雜胡 / 杂胡, Pinyin: zá hú, Wade-Giles: tsa hu) of Pingliang[7][12]. Book of Sui reported that when Emperor Taiwu of Northern Wei overthrew Juqu Mujian's Northern Liang in October 18, 439[13][14][15], Ashina's 500 families fled to the Rouran Khaganate.[7] And they lived north of the Altai Mountains for generations, and served as ironsmiths for the Rouran Khaganate[7][16]. Within the heterogeneous Ruanruan confederacy, the Gokturks were engaged in metal-works. Their rise to power represented an 'internal revolution' rather than an external conquest.[17]

First khaganate

Periods of Pre-Mongol Mongolia
Xiongnu Period
Xianbei Period
Nirun Period
Turkic Period
Uyghur Period
Khitan Period
See also: Khamag Mongol

The Kok Turks rise to power began in 546 when Bumin Qaghan made a pre-emptive strike against the Uyghur and Tiele tribes who were planning a revolt against their overlords, the Rouran. For this service he expected to be rewarded with a Rouran princess, i.e. marry into the royal family. However Rouran kaghan Anagui sent an emissary to Bumin to rebuke him, saying, "You are my blacksmith slave. How dare you utter these words?". As Anagui's "blacksmith slave" comment was recorded in Chinese chronicles, some historians felt that the Kok Turks were indeed blacksmith servants for the Rouran elite,[18][19][20][21] and that "blacksmith slavery" may indicate a kind of vassalage system prevailed in Rouran society.[22] On the other hand, according to Denis Sinor, this disdainful reference proves that Turks were indeed specialized in metallurgy.[23][24]

Disappointed in his hopes, Bumin allied with the Wei state against Rouran, their common enemy. In 552 (February 11 - March 10, 552), Bumin defeated the Rouran Khan, Yujiulü Anagui in north of Huaihuang (in present day Zhangjiakou, Hebei)[6]. He also subdued the Yenisei Kyrgyz and the Khitans of Western Manchuria, was formally recognized by China, and married the Wei princess Changle.

Having excelled both in battle and diplomacy Bumin declared himself Illig Qaghan ("great king of kings") of the new khaganate at Ötüken but died a year later. It was his son Muqan Qaghan who consolidated his conquests into an empire of global reach. Bumin's brother Istämi (d. 576) was titled yabghu of the west and collaborated with the Persian Sassanids to defeat and destroy the White Huns, who were allies of the Rouran. This war tightened the Ashina's grip of the Silk Road and drove the Varkun into Europe.

Istämi's policy of western expansion brought the Kok Turks into Eastern Europe. In 576 the Kök Türks crossed the Cimmerian Bosporus into the Crimea. Five years later they laid siege to Chersonesos Taurica; their cavalry kept roaming the steppes of Crimea until 590.[25] As for the southern borders, they were drawn south of the Oxus River, bringing the Ashina into conflict with their former allies, the Sassanids of Persia. Much of Bactria (including Balkh) remained a dependency of the Ashina until the end of the century.[25]. In 588 they were under the walls of Herat but Bahram Chobin ably countered the invasion during the First Perso-Turkic War.

In the eastern part of their extensive dominions, the Turkic Khaganate maintained close political ties with the Goguryeo, one of the three kingdoms of ancient Korea which controlled southern Manchuria and the northern part of the Korean Peninsula. Both rival states in north China paid large tributes to the Kök Türks from 581.

Civil war

Turkic khaganates at their height, c. 600 CE :      Western Gokturk: Lighter area is direct rule, darker areas show sphere of influence.      Eastern Gokturk: Lighter area is direct rule, darker areas show sphere of influence.

This first Turkic Khaganate split in two after the death of the fourth Qaghan, Taspar Qaghan (ca. 584). He had willed the title Qaghan to Muqan's son Ahina Daluobian, but the high council appointed Ishbara Qaghan in his stead. Factions formed around both leaders. Before long four rival qaghans claimed the title of Qaghan. They were successfully played off against each other by the Sui and Tang dynasties of China.

The most serious contender was the Western qaghan, Istämi's son Tardu, a violent and ambitious man who had already declared himself independent from the Qaghan after his father's death. He now titled himself as Qaghan, and led an army to the east to claim the seat of imperial power, Ötüken.

In order to buttress his position, Ishbara of the Eastern Khaganate applied to the Chinese Emperor Yangdi for protection. Tardu attacked Changan, the Sui capital, around 600, demanding from Emperor Yangdi to end his interference in the civil war. In retaliation, Chinese diplomacy successfully incited a revolt of Tardu's Tiele vassal tribes, which led to the end of Tardu's reign in 603. Among the dissident tribes were the Uyghur and Syr-Tardush.

Eastern Turkic Khaganate

The civil war left the empire divided into the eastern and western parts. The eastern part, still ruled from Ötüken, remained in the orbit of the Sui Empire and retained the name Kök Türk. The qaghans Shibi (609-19) and Illig (620-30) of the East attacked China at its weakest moment during the transition between the Sui and Tang dynasties. On September 11, 615[26] Shibi Qaghan's army surrounded Emperor Yang of Sui at Yanmen (in present day Dai County, Xinzhou, Shanxi)[27]. In 626, Illig Qaghan takes advantage of the Incident at Xuanwu Gate, drove on Chang'an. On September 23, 626 [28] Illig Qaghan and his iron cavalries reached the bank of Wei River at the north of Bian Bridge (in present day Xianyang, Shaanxi). On September 25, 626[29] Li Shimin (Emperor Taizong) and Illig Qaghan formed an alliance with slaying a white horse on Bian Bridge. Tang paid compensation and promise further tributes, Illig Qaghan ordered to withdraw their iron cavalries (Alliance of Wei River, 渭水之盟 or Alliance of Bian Qiao 便橋會盟 / 便桥会盟)[30]. All in all, 67 incursions on Chinese territories were recorded.[25]

However, severe weather on the Mongolian steppe at some point before the middle of October 627. Heavy snows covered the ground to a depth of several feet, preventing the nomads' livestock from grazing and causing a massive die-off among the animals.[31] According to New Book of Tang, in 628, Taizong mentioned that There has been a frost in midsummer. The sun had risen from same place for five days. The moon had had the same light level for three days. The field was filled with red atmosphere (dust storm).[32]

Illig Qaghan was brought down by a revolt of his Tiele vassal tribes (626-630), allied with Emperor Taizong of Tang. This tribal alliance figures in Chinese records as the Huihe (Uyghur).

On March 27, 630[33] Tang army under the command of Li Jing defeats the Eastern Turkic Khaganate under the command of Illig Qaghan at Battle of Yinshan (陰山之戰 / 阴山之战)[34][35][36]. Illig Qaghan fled to Ishbara Shad. But in May 2, 630 [37] Zhang Baohiang's army got advance to Ishbara Shad's headquarter. Illig Qaghan was taken prisoner and sent to Chang'an.[36] And then the Eastern Turkic Khaganate was collapsed and was incorporated into the Jimi system of Tang. Emperor Taizong said that It's enough for me to compensate my dishonor at Wei River.[35].

Western Turkic Khaganate

The Western qaghan Shekuei and Tung Yabghu constructed an alliance with the Byzantine Empire against the Persian Sassanids and succeeded in restoring the southern borders along the Tarim and Oxus rivers. Their capital was Suyab in the Chui River valley, about 6 km south east of modern Tokmok. In 627 Tung Yabghu, assisted by the Khazars and Emperor Heraclius, launched a massive invasion of Transcaucasia which culminated in the taking of Derbent and Tbilisi (see the Third Perso-Turkic War for details). In April 630 Tung's deputy Böri Shad sent the Kök Türk cavalry to invade Armenia, where his general Chorpan Tarkhan succeeded in routing a large Persian force. Tung Yabghu's murder in 630 forced the Kök Türks to evacuate Transcaucasia.

The Western Turkic Khaganate was modernized through an administrative reform of Ishbara Qaghan (Ashina Helu) (reigned 634-639) and came to be known as the Onoq.[38] The name refers to "ten arrows" that were granted by the khagan to five leaders (shads) of its two constituent tribal confederations, Tulu and Nushipi, whose lands were divided by the Chui River.[38] The division fostered the growth of separatist tendencies, and soon the Bulgarian tribes under the Dulo chieftain Kubrat seceded from the khaganate. In 657, the eastern part of the khaganate was overrun by the Tang general Su Ding Fang, while the central part had emerged as the independent khaganate of Khazaria, led by a branch of the Ashina dynasty.

Emperor Taizong of Tang was proclaimed Khagan of the Kok Turks.

In 659 the Tang Emperor of China could claim to rule the entire Silk Road as far as Po-sse (Persia). The Kok Turks now carried Chinese titles and fought by their side in their wars. The era spanning from 659-681 was characterized by numerous independent rulers - weak, divided, and engaged in constant petty wars. In the east, the Uyghurs defeated their one-time allies the Syr-Tardush, while in the west the Turgesh emerged as successors to the Onoq.

Eastern Turks under the Jimi system

On May 19, 639[39] Ashina Jiesheshuai and his tribesmen assaulted Tai zong at Jiucheng Palace (九成宮, in present day Linyou County, Baoji, Shaanxi). But they didn't succeed and ran away to the north. But were arrested by pursuers near the Wei River and killed. Ashina Hexiangu was exiled to Lingbiao.[40]. After the unsuccessful raid of Ashina Jiesheshuai, on August 13, 639[41] Taizong created Ashina Simo as the Yiminishuqilibi Khan and ordered the settled Turkic people to follow Ashina Simo north of the Yellow River to settle between the Great Wall and the Gobi Desert.[42]

In 679, Ashide Wenfu and Ashide Fengzhi who were Turkic leaders of Shanyu Protectorate (單于大都護府) made Ashina Nishufu a Turkic qaghan and revolts against Tang dynasty.[43] In 680, Pei Xingjian defeated Ashina Nishufu and his army. Ashina Nishufu was killed by his men.[43] Ashide Wenfu made Ashina Funian a qaghan and revolted aginst Tang dynasty.[43] Ashide Wenfu and Ashina Funian surrendered to Pei Xingjian. On December 5, 681[44] 54 Kok Turks (including Ashide Wenfu, Ashina Funian) were publicly executed in the Easten Market of Chang'an.[43] In 682, Ashina Kutlug and Ashide Yuanzhen revolted and occupied Heisha Castle (in present day northwest of Hohhot, Inner Mongolia) with the remnants of Ashina Funian's men.[45]

Second Eastern Turkic Khaganate

Asia in 700 AD, showing the Second (Eastern) Turkic Khaganate.
Sculpted marble head of the Kök Türk general Kul Tigin (8th century AD). Discovered in the Orkhon Valley.

Despite all the setbacks, Ilterish Shad (Idat) and his brother Qapaghan Qaghan (Mo-ch'o) succeeded in reestablishing the Khanate. In 681 they revolted against Tang Dynasty Chinese domination and, over the following decades, steadily gained control of the steppes beyond the Great Wall of China. By 705, they had expanded as far south as Samarkand and threatened the Arab control of Transoxiana. The Kök Türks clashed with the Umayyad Califate in a series of battles (712-713) but, the Arabs emerged as victors.

Following the Ashina tradition, the power of the Second (Eastern) Khaganate was centered on Ötüken (the upper reaches of the Orkhon River). This polity was described by historians as "the joint enterprise of the Ashina clan and the Soghdians, with large numbers of Chinese bureaucrats being involved as well".[46] The son of Ilterish, Bilge, was also a strong leader, the one whose deeds were recorded in the Orkhon inscriptions. After his death in 734 the Second Khaganate declined. The Kök Türks ultimately fell victim to a series of internal crises and renewed Chinese campaigns.

When Kul Bilge Qaghan of the Uyghurs allied himself with the Karluks and Basmyls, the power of the Kök Türks was very much on the wane. In 744 Kutluk seized Ötükän and beheaded the last Kök Türk khagan Ozmysh Qaghan, whose head was sent to the Tang Dynasty Chinese court.[47] In a space of few years, the Uyghurs gained mastery of Inner Asia and established the Uyghur Khaganate. In the next great battle, in 749, the Uyghurs were defeated comprehensively by general Li Wu of the Tang dynasty.

Custom and culture

Political system

The Kök Türks' temporary qaghan from the Ashina clan were subordinate to a sovereign authority that was left in the hands of a council of tribal chiefs.

Language and character

The Kök Türks were the first Turkic people known to write their language in a runic script. Life stories of Kul Tigin and Bilge Qaghan, as well as the chancellor Tonyukuk were recorded in the Orkhon inscriptions.

Religion

The Khaganate received missionaries from the Buddhists, Manicheans, and Nestorian Christians, but retained their original shamanistic religion, Tengriism.

Rulers

First Turkic Khaganate
Eastern Turkic Khaganate
Rival Qahhans of Ishbara
Western Turkic Khaganate
Interim claimants of the Eastern Turkic throne
Second Eastern Turkic Kaganate

See also

References

  1. ↑ Middle Iranian lexicography: proceedings of the Conference held in Rome, 9–11 April 2001, Vol. 98, Istituto italiano per l'Africa e l'Oriente, 2005, ISBN 9788885320260, p. 61. (English)
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Kultegin's Memorial Complex, TÜRIK BITIG Khöshöö Tsaidam Monuments (English)
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Bilge Kagan's Memorial Complex, TÜRIK BITIG Khöshöö Tsaidam Monuments (English)
  4. ↑ Tonyukuk's Memorial Complex, TÜRIK BITIG Bain Tsokto Monument (English)
  5. ↑ Marshall Cavendish, Peoples of Western Asia, Marshall Cavendish Corporation, 2006, ISBN 978-0-7614-7677-1, p. 545. (English)
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 Linghu Defen et al., Book of Zhou, Vol. 50. (Chinese)
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 Wei Zheng et al., Book of Sui, Vol. 84. (Chinese)
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Li Yanshou, History of Northern Dynasties, Vol. 99. (Chinese)
  9. ↑ Wink 64.
  10. ↑ Findley 39.
  11. ↑ Zhu 68-91.
  12. ↑ 杜佑, 《通典》, 北京: 中華書局出版, (Du You, Tongdian, Vol.197), 辺防13 北狄4 突厥上, 1988, ISBN 7-101-00258-7, p. 5401. (Chinese)
  13. ↑ Wei Shou, Book of Wei, Vol. 4-I. (Chinese)
  14. ↑ Sima Guang, Zizhi Tongjian, Vol. 123. (Chinese)
  15. ↑ 永和七年 (太延五年) 九月丙戌 Academia Sinica (Chinese)
  16. ↑ Sima Guang, Zizhi Tongjian, Vol. 159. (Chinese)
  17. ↑ Denis Sinor, "The Establishment and Dissolution of the Turk Empire", The Cambridge History of Early Inner Asia, Page 287, 295. (English)
  18. ↑ 馬長壽, 《突厥人和突厥汗國》, 上海人民出版社, 1957,p. 10-11 (Chinese)
  19. ↑ 陳豐祥, 余英時, 《中國通史》, 五南圖書出版股份有限公司, 2002, ISBN 978-957-11-2881-8, p. 155 (Chinese)
  20. ↑ Gao Yang, "The Origin of the Turks and the Turkish Khanate", X. Türk Tarih Kongresi: Ankara 22 - 26 Eylül 1986, Kongreye Sunulan Bildiriler, V. Cilt, Türk Tarih Kurumu, 1991, s. 731. (English)
  21. ↑ Burhan Oğuz, Türkiye halkının kültür kökenleri: Giriş, beslenme teknikleri, İstanbul Matbaası, 1976, p. 147. «Demirci köle» olmaktan kurtulup reisleri Bumin'e (Turkish)
  22. ↑ Larry W. Moses, "Relations with the Inner Asian Barbarian", ed. John Curtis Perry, Bardwell L. Smith, Essays on Tʻang society: the interplay of social, political and economic forces, Brill Archive, 1976, ISBN 978-90-04-04761-7, p. 65. Slave' probably meant vassalage to the Juan Juan confederation of Mongolia, whom they served in battle by providing iron weapons, and also marching with qaghan's armies. (English)
  23. ↑ Denis Sinor, Inner Asia: history-civilization-languages : a syllabus, Routledge, 1997, ISBN 978-0-7007-0380-7, p. 26. Contacts had already begun in 545 A.D. between the so-called "blacksmith-slave" Türk and certain of the small petty kingdom of north China,
  24. ↑ Denis Sinor, ibid, p. 101. Beyond A-na-kui's disdainful referance to his "blaksmith slaves" there is ample evidence ot show that the Türks were indeed specializing in metallurgy, though it is difficult to establish whether they were miners or rather blacksmiths. (English)
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 25.2 Grousset 81.
  26. ↑ 大業十一年 八月癸酉 Academia Sinica (Chinese)
  27. ↑ Sima Guang, Zizhi Tongjian, Vol. 182. (Chinese)
  28. ↑ 武德九年 八月癸未 Academia Sinica (Chinese)
  29. ↑ 武德九年 八月乙酉 Academia Sinica (Chinese)
  30. ↑ Sima Guang, Zizhi Tongjian, Vol. 191. (Chinese)
  31. ↑ David Andrew Graff, Medieval Chinese warfare, 300-900, Routledge, 2002, ISBN 9780415239554, p. 186.
  32. ↑ Ouyang Xiu, New Book of Tang, Vol. 215-I (Chinese)
  33. ↑ 貞觀四年 二月甲辰 Academia Sinica (Chinese)
  34. ↑ Book of Tang, Vol. 3. (Chinese)
  35. ↑ 35.0 35.1 Ouyang Xiu et al., New Book of Tang, Vol. 93. (Chinese)
  36. ↑ 36.0 36.1 Sima Guang, Zizhi Tongjian, Vol. 193. (Chinese)
  37. ↑ 貞觀四年 三月庚辰
  38. ↑ 38.0 38.1 Gumilev 238.
  39. ↑ 貞觀十三年 四月戊寅 Academia Sinica (Chinese)
  40. ↑ Sima Guang, Zizhi Tongjian, Vol. 195. (Chinese)
  41. ↑ 貞觀十三年 七月庚戌 Academia Sinica (Chinese)
  42. ↑ Ouyang Xiu et al., New Book of Tang, Vol. 215-I.
  43. ↑ 43.0 43.1 43.2 43.3 Sima Guang, Zizhi Tongjian, Vol. 202 (Chinese)
  44. ↑ 開耀元年 十月乙酉 Academia Sinica (Chinese)
  45. ↑ Sima Guang, Zizhi Tongjian, Vol. 203 (Chinese)
  46. ↑ Wink 66.
  47. ↑ Grousset 114.
  48. ↑ Deny; Jean Deny, Louis Bazin, Hans Robert Roemer, György Hazai , Wolfgang-Ekkehard Scharlipp (2000). History of the Turkic Peoples in the Pre-Islamic Period. Schwarz. pp. 108. http://books.google.com/books?id=86g2AAAAIAAJ&q=Taspar+Khan&dq=Taspar+Khan&client=firefox-a&pgis=1. 
  49. ↑ Lovell, Julia (2007). The great wall: China Against the World, 1000 BC - AD 2000. Grove Press. pp. 354. ISBN 0802142974. http://books.google.com/books?id=IWS53cuiuVgC&pg=PA354&dq=shetu+khan&lr=&client=firefox-a&sig=rcy1AkpkicrV2Clh9O8WzIEomPo. 
  50. ↑ Xiong, Victor Cunrui (2006). Emperor Yang of the Sui Dynasty: His Life, Times, and Legacy. State University of New York Press. pp. 213. ISBN 079146587X. http://books.google.com/books?id=-1PSb8wp-woC&pg=PA213&dq=Shibi++619&lr=&client=firefox-a&sig=5RmABfHd5zigF71LvjOauSzMprA. 
  51. ↑ 51.0 51.1 Yu. Zuev, p. 233
Bibliography
Göktürks
Turkic Khaganate
Bumin Qaghan · Issik Qaghan · Muqan Qaghan · Taspar Qaghan · Ashina Anluo · Ishbara Qaghan · Bagha Qaghan · Tulan Qaghan · (Empress Ashina) · (Apa Qaghan)
Western Turkic Khaganate
(Istämi) · (Tardush) · Niri Qaghan · Heshana Khan · Tong Yabghu Qaghan · Ishbara Qaghan · (Bagha Shad) · (Böri Shad)
Eastern Turkic Khaganate
Yami Qaghan · Shibi Qaghan · Chulo Qaghan · Illig Qaghan · Qilibi Qaghan · Chebi Qaghan · Ashina Nishufu · Ashina Funian · (Ashina Jiesheshuai)
Second Eastern Turkic Khaganate
Ilterish Qaghan · Qapaghan Qaghan · Inel Qaghan · Bilge Qaghan · Yiran Qaghan · Tengri Qaghan · Kutlug Yabghu Qaghan · Irterish Qaghan · Ozmish Qaghan · (Kul Tigin) · (Tonyukuk)
Göktürk culture
Ashina clan · Tengriism · Asena · Ötüken · Suyab · Khagan · Kurultai · Yabgu · Ishad · Elteber · Old Turkic language · Old Turkic script · Orkhon Valley
Göktürk wars and treaties
Göktürk civil war · Perso-Turkic Wars (First, Second, Third) · Taizong's Eastern Tujue campaign · Xueyantuo · Taizong's Western Tujue campaign · Ili river treaty
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Politics
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See also
Joint Administration of Turkic Arts and Culture
History of the Turkic peoples

1 Is a state with limited international recognition