Governor-General

A Governor General, is a vice-regal representative of a monarch in an independent realm or a major colonial circonscription. Depending on the political arrangement of the territory, a Governor General can be a governor of high rank, or a principal governor ranking above "ordinary" governors.[1]

Contents

Current uses

In modern usage,the term the term "Governor General" originated in those British colonies which became self governing within the British empire (examples are Australia, Canada and New Zealand). With the exception of New Zealand, each of the previously constituent colonies of these federated colonies already had a Governor, and the Crown's representative to the federated Dominion was therefore given the superior title of Governor General. New Zealand was granted Dominion status in 1907, but as it had never been a federal state there was no pressing need to change the gubernatorial title. It was not until 28 June 1917 that the Arthur Foljambe, 2nd Earl of Liverpool was appointed the first Governor General of New Zealand. Another non-federal state, Newfoundland, was a Dominion for 16 years with the King's representative retaining the title of Governor throughout this time.

Since the 1950s, the title Governor General has been given to all representatives of the sovereign in independent Commonwealth realms. In these cases, the former office of colonial governor was altered (sometimes for the same incumbent) to become Governor General upon independence, as the nature of the office became an entirely independent constitutional representative of the monarch rather than a symbol of previous colonial rule. In these countries the Governor General acts as the Monarch's representative, performing the ceremonial and constitutional functions of a Head of State.

The only other nation which uses the Governor General designation is Iran, which has no connection with either the British (or any other) monarchy or the Commonwealth. In Iran, the provincial authority is headed by a Governor General[2] (Persian: استاندار ostāndār), who is appointed by the Minister of the Interior.

British colonialism and the Governor General

Lord Tweedsmuir was Governor General of Canada from 1935 to 1940. The uniform shown here was the customary ceremonial dress for Commonwealth Governors General until recently.

Until the 1920s, Governors General were British subjects, appointed on the advice of the British Government, who acted as agents of the British Government in each Dominion, as well as being representatives of the monarch. As such they notionally held the prerogative powers of the monarch, and also held the executive power of the country to which they were assigned. The Governor General could be instructed by the Colonial Secretary on the exercise of some of his functions and duties, such as the use or withholding of the Royal Assent from legislation; history shows many examples of Governors General using their prerogative and executive powers. The monarch or Imperial government could overrule any Governor General, though this could often be cumbersome, due to remoteness of the territories from London.

The Governor General was also the head of the armed forces in his or her territory and, because of the Governor General's control of the military, the post was as much a military appointment as a civil one. Indeed, until the late 20th century, the Governor General's official attire was the court dress, Windsor uniform or other military uniform.

In some colonies, the title of the royal representative was never Governor General. The King's representative in New Zealand, for instance, was simply titled Governor until after the country became a Dominion.

Modern Commonwealth

Independent Commonwealth realms

Following the Imperial Conference, and subsequent issuing of the Balfour Declaration in 1926, the role and responsibilities of the Governor General began to shift, reflecting the increased independence of the Dominions (Which were in 1952 renamed Realms; a term which includes the UK itself). As the sovereign came to be regarded as monarch of each territory independently, and, as such, advised only by the ministers of each country in regard to said country's national affairs (as opposed to a single British monarch ruling all the Dominions as a conglomerate and advised only by an imperial parliament), so too did the Governor General become a direct representative of the national monarch only, who no longer answered to the British government. The report resulting from the 1926 Imperial Conference stated: "...it is an essential consequence of the equality of status existing among the members of the British Commonwealth of Nations that the Governor General of a Dominion is the representative of the Crown, holding in all essential respects the same position in relation to the administration of public affairs in the Dominion as is held by His Majesty the King in great Britain, and that he is not the representative or agent of His Majesty's Government in Great Britain or of any Department of that Government."[3] These concepts were entrenched in legislation with the enactment of the Statute of Westminster in 1931, and governmental relations with the United Kingdom were placed in the hands of a British High Commissioner in each country.

In other words, the political reality of a self governing dominion within the British Empire with a Governor General answerable to the sovereign of Great Britain became clear. British interference in the dominion was not acceptable and independent country status was clearly displayed. Canada, Australia and New Zealand were clearly not controlled by the United Kingdom. The monarch of these countries (Elizabeth II) is in law Queen of Canada, Queen of Australia, Queen of New Zealand and only acts on the advice of the ministers in each country and is in no way influenced by the British government. The monarch appoints a Governor General as a personal representative only on the advice of the Prime Minister of the realm. The Governor General of Canada is appointed by the Queen of Canada on the advice of the Canadian Prime Minister. The Governor General of Australia is appointed by the Queen of Australia on the advice of the Australian Prime Minister and the Governor General of New Zealand is appointed by the Queen of New Zealand on the advice of the New Zealand Prime Minister, etc.

Today, therefore, in former British colonies which are now independent Commonwealth realms, the Governor General is constitutionally the representative of the monarch in his or her state, and may exercise the reserve powers of the monarch according to their own constitutional authority. The Governor General, however, is still appointed by the monarch, and takes an oath of allegiance to the monarch of their own country. Executive authority is also vested in the monarch, though it can be placed with the Governor General on behalf of the sovereign of the independent realm. Letters of Credence or Letters of Recall are now sometimes received or issued in the name of the monarch, though in some countries, such as Canada and Australia, the Letters of Credence and Recall are issued in the name of the Governor General alone.

At diplomatic functions where the Governor General is present, the visiting diplomat or head of state toasts "The King" or "The Queen" of the relevant realm, not the Governor General, with any reference to the Governor General being subsidiary in later toasts if featuring at all, and will involve a toast to them by name, not office. (E.g., "Mr. and Mrs. Smith," not "Her Excellency, the Governor General." Sometimes a toast might be made using name and office, e.g., "Governor General Smith.")

Except in rare cases, the Governor General only acts in accordance with constitutional convention and upon the advice of the national Prime Minister.[4] The Governor General is still the local representative of the sovereign, and performs the same duties as they carried out historically, though their role is almost purely ceremonial. Rare and controversial exceptions occurred in 1926, when Canadian Governor General Lord Byng refused Prime Minister Mackenzie King's request for a dissolution of parliament; in 1953 and 1954 when the Governor General of Pakistan, Ghulam Mohammad, staged a constitutional coup against the Prime Minister and then the Constituent Assembly; and in 1975, when the Governor General of Australia, Sir John Kerr, dismissed the Prime Minister, Gough Whitlam.[5] In principle, the Crown could overrule a Governor General, but this has not happened in modern times.

The term de facto head of state, though having no constitutional status, has been used informally in Commonwealth realms to describe the role of a Governor General.

The Governor General is usually a person with a distinguished record of public service, often a retired politician, judge or military commander; but some countries have also appointed prominent academics, members of the clergy, philanthropists, or figures from the news media to the office. The Governor General is formally appointed by the Monarch, following the specific request of the Prime Minister of the country concerned; Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands are the only realms that elect their Governor General, in both cases by a parliamentary vote.

Traditionally, the Governor General's official attire was a military uniform, but this practice has been abandoned except on occasions when it is appropriate to be worn. In South Africa, the Governor General of the Union nominated by the Afrikaner Nationalist government chose not to wear uniform on any occasion. Most Governors General continue to wear appropriate medals on their clothing when required.

The Governor General's official residence is usually called Government House. The Governor-General of the Irish Free State resided in the then Viceregal Lodge in Phoenix Park, Dublin, but the government of Éamon de Valera sought to downgrade the office, and the last Governor General, Domhnall Ua Buachalla, did not reside there. The office was abolished there in 1936.

In most Commonwealth realms, the flag of the Governor General has been the standard pattern of a blue field with the Royal Crest (a lion standing on a crown) above a scroll with the name of the jurisdiction. In Canada, however, this was replaced with a crowned lion clasping a maple leaf. In the Solomon Islands, the scroll was replaced with a two-headed frigate bird motif, while in Fiji, the former Governor General's flag featured a whale's tooth. In New Zealand, the flag was replaced in 2008 with the shield of the coat of arms of New Zealand surmounted by a crown on a blue field.

Governors General are accorded the style of His/Her Excellency. This style is also extended to their spouses, whether female or male (for an example of the latter, see Jean-Daniel Lafond).

In former colonies which are now Commonwealth republics, the Governor General and Monarch have been replaced by an elected or appointed (sometimes non-executive) Head of State.

Appointment

Tim Healy
First Governor-General of the Irish Free State

Until the 1920s, the Governors General were British, and appointed on the advice of the British Government.

In December 1922, Tim Healy, an Irish Catholic politician, was appointed as the first Governor-General of the Irish Free State. This was the first time that someone other than a British Peer was appointed as the Governor-General of a dominion within the British Empire. Following the changes to the structure of the Commonwealth in the late 1920s, in 1929, the Australian Prime Minister James Scullin established the right of a Dominion Prime Minister to advise the Monarch directly on the appointment of a Governor General, by insisting that his choice (Sir Isaac Isaacs, an Australian) prevail over the recommendation of the British Government. The convention was gradually established throughout the Commonwealth that the Governor General would be a citizen of the country concerned, and would be appointed on the advice of the government of that country, with no input from the British Government. Since 1931 as each former Dominion has patriated its constitution from the UK, the convention has become law and no government of any realm can advise the Monarch on any matter pertaining to another realm, including the appointment of a Governor General. Today a country's Governor-General is appointed by the Sovereign based solely on the advice of the prime minister of the country concerned.

Commonwealth countries with a Governor General

Commonwealth realm From
Antigua and Barbuda 1981 Website
Australia 1901 Website
Bahamas 1973 Website
Barbados 1966 Website
Belize 1981 Website
Canada 1867 Website
Grenada 1974
Jamaica 1962 Website
New Zealand 1917 Website
Papua New Guinea 1975
Saint Kitts and Nevis 1983
Saint Lucia 1979
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines 1979 Website
Solomon Islands 1978
Tuvalu 1978

Clicking on the country above will take you the relevant Governor-General article.

A list of current Governors-General in Commonwealth countries may be found here: Representatives of the Commonwealth of Nations.

Other attributes

Different realms have different constitutional arrangements governing who acts in place of the Governor General in the event of his or her death, resignation, or incapacity.

Former British colonies

The title has been used in many British colonial entities that either no longer exist or are now independent countries.

In the Americas

In Asia

In Africa

Former Commonwealth realms

Most Commonwealth countries that are now republics, have a President as head of state, where previously they had a Governor General. Some became parliamentary republics, like India, where the presidency is a ceremonial post, similar to that of the British monarch, while others, like Ghana, adopted a presidential system like the United States. Australia held a referendum on becoming a parliamentary republic in 1999, but this was rejected.

The current governments of Barbados and Jamaica, while having announced plans to hold referendums on becoming republics (in each case with a non-executive President replacing the Queen as head of state, as occurred in Trinidad and Tobago in 1976), have not proceeded any further.

In Africa

Zambia and the Seychelles became republics within the Commonwealth on independence.

In the Americas

Dominica became a republic on independence in 1978, with a ceremonial President as head of state.

In Asia

In Europe

Cyprus became a republic on independence.

In Oceania

Other colonial and similar usages

Belgian

French

The equivalent word in French is gouverneur général, used in the following colonies:

Furthermore, in Napoleonic Europe successive French Governors-general were appointed by Napoleon I in:

Netherlands

From 1691 to 1948 the Dutch appointed a Gouverneur-generaal ("Governor-General") to govern the Netherlands East Indies, now Indonesia.

While in the Caribbean, various other titles were used, Curaçao had three Governors-General between 1816 and 1820:

Spanish

Portuguese

The equivalent word in Portuguese is Governador-Geral, but this style was only used in a few major colonies, other colonies lower titles, mainly Governador (Governor) or Captain-major, prevailed

U.S.

Other Western usages

Asian counterparts

See also

Note

In Canada the title "Governor General" is always used unhyphenated. In Australia and New Zealand, the term is always hyphenated.[6][7]

References

  1. "Governor General" definition on dictionary.com (retrieved February 14, 2006)
  2. 2.0 2.1 IRNA, Online Edition. ""Paris for further cultural cooperation with Iran"". http://www2.irna.com/en/news/view/line-203/0710215516003338.htm. Retrieved 2007-10-21. 
  3. Heard, Andrew (1990), "Canadian Independence", Vancouver: Simon Fraser University, http://www.sfu.ca/~aheard/324/Independence.html, retrieved 25 August 2010 
  4. In particular, see the history of the Governor General of Australia
  5. Letter from the Queen's Private Secretary to the Speaker of the House of Representatives of Australia of 17 November 1975, at The Whitlam Dismissal, retrieved February 15, 2006.
  6. Governor General of Australia ~ Welcome Message - Main Home Page
  7. www.gov-gen.govt.nz

External links