Brahmin

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Brahmin (also Brahman; Brāhmaṇa, ब्राह्मण) is a member of the priestly class or caste in the subcontinent. The Varna Shastra or classification of Hindu Society comprises Brahmins (priests), Kshatriyas (warriors), Vaisyas (farmers) and Shudras (Labourers). Brahmins are staffed with performing religious duties as priests in Hinduism and preaching Dharma as "one who prays, a devout or religious man, a Brāhman who is well versed in Vedic texts, one versed in sacred knowledge". The Brahmins held authority of interpretation of Vedic and Puranic spiritual texts like the Vedas, Upanishads and Bhagavad-Gita.

The English word brahmin is an anglicised form of the Sanskrit word Brāhmana; (Brahman also refers to the supreme self in Hinduism). Brahmins are also called Vipra "inspired",[1] or Dvija "twice-born".[2]

Due to the diversity in regional, religious traditions and the Vedic schools which they belong to, Brahmins are further divided into various sub-castes. Not all Brahmins are priests, but only a subset of brahmins are involved in the priestly duties, with vedic learning, ascetic and humble living. Brahmins have been practicing other professions since late Vedic ages like doctors, smiths, lawyers, engineers, warriors, writers, poets, landlords, ministers, etc. Many Brahmins have emigrated to other parts of the world in sizable numbers, particularly to the USA, UK, Canada and Australia.

Contents

History

Main article: History of Hinduism

The history of the Brahmin community in India begins with the Vedic religion of early Hinduism, now often referred to by Hindus as Sanatana Dharma. The Vedas are the primary source of knowledge for brahmin practices. Most sampradayas of Brahmins take inspiration from the Vedas. According to orthodox Hindu tradition, the Vedas are apauruṣeya and anādi (beginning-less), but are revealed truths of eternal validity.

The Vedas are considered Śruti (that which is heard) and are the paramount source of Brahmin traditions. Shruti includes not only the four Vedas (the Rigveda, the Yajurveda, the Samaveda and the Atharvaveda), but also their respective Brahmanas, Aranyakas and Upanishads.

Brahman and Brahmin (brahman, brahmán, masculine) are not the same. Brahman (bráhman, neuter), since the Upanishads, refers to the Supreme Self. Brahmin or Brahmana (brahmán, brāhmaṇa) refers to an individual. Additionally, the word Brahma (brahmā, masculine) refers to first of the gods.

In 1931 (the last Indian census to record caste), Brahmins accounted for 4.32% of the total population. Brahmins even in Uttar Pradesh, where they were most numerous, constituted just 12% of the recorded population. In Andhra Pradesh, they formed less than 2%, in Tamil Nadu they formed less than 3%.[3] In Kerala, Nambudiri Brahmins make up 0.7% of the population. According to the 2001 census, Brahmins constitute less than 4.1% of the Indian population.

Brahmin communities

The Brahmin castes may be broadly divided into two regional groups: Pancha-Gauda Brahmins from Northern India and considered to be North of Vindhya mountains and Pancha-Dravida Brahmins from South of Vindhya mountains as per the shloka, however this sloka is from Rajatarangini of Kalhana which is composed only in 11th CE.

कर्णाटकाश्च तैलंगा द्राविडा महाराष्ट्रकाः,
गुर्जराश्चेति पञ्चैव द्राविडा विन्ध्यदक्षिणे ||
सारस्वताः कान्यकुब्जा गौडा उत्कलमैथिलाः,
पन्चगौडा इति ख्याता विन्ध्स्योत्तरवासि ||[4]

Translation: Karnataka (Kannada), Telugu (Andhra), Dravida (Tamil and Kerala), Maharashtra and Gujarat are Five Southern (Panch Dravida). Saraswata, Kanyakubja, Gauda, Utkala (Orissa), Maithili are Five Northern (Pancha Gauda). This classification occurs in Rajatarangini of Kalhana and earlier in some inscriptions [5]

Pancha Gauda Brahmins

Panch Gaur (the five classes of Northern India): (1) Saraswat, (2) Kanyakubja Brahmins, (3) Maithil Brahmins, (4) Gauda brahmins (including Sanadhyas), and (5) Utkala Brahmins. In addition, for the purpose of giving an account of Northern Brahmins each of the provinces must be considered separately, such as Kashmir, Nepal, Uttarakhand, Himachal, Kurukshetra, Rajputana, Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Ayodhya (Oudh), Gandhara, Punjab, Bengal, Orissa, Bihar, North Western Provinces and Pakistan, Sindh, Central India, and Tirhut, among others. They originate from south of the (now-extinct) Sarasvati River.[6]

Andhra Pradesh

Most of the Brahmins in Andhra Pradesh belong to smaarta Brahmin group, i.e., the followers of smritis and followers of Adi Sankaracharya. The smaarta Brahmins follow Apastambasmriti or Apastambasutra (not Manusmriti). Apasthamba (~600 BC) was one of the earliest lawmakers of south India who lived on the banks of River Godavari. Boudhayana, Parasara, Yajnvalkya sutras and other laws were also important in the past, e.g., in the courts of Srikrishnadevaraya. Pradhamasakha Niyogi Brahmins follow Yajnavalkya sutras and Kanva sutras. The smaarta Brahmins in Andhra Pradesh can be grouped into two major divisions formed about a thousand to about 700 years ago (most probably during Kakatiya rule), Niyogi and Vaidiki. However, in addition to smaarta Brahmins, there are other Brahmin groups such as Sri Vaishnavas, Madhavas and Aradhyas.[7]

Niyogi Brahmins are those brahmins who were mostly scholars and officials under kings of different dynasties in ancient India. While Vaidiki Brahmins are the brahmins who undertook the religious vocation with vedik learning. They are considered to be experts in Sanskrit and Telugu (State Language of Andhra Pradesh) Literature. See List of Telugu Brahmins and Telugu Brahmins.

Assam

In Assam, out of many sects of Hindu people which include Brahmins (Assamese: অসমীয়া ব্ৰাহ্মণ, Hindi: आसामी ब्राह्मण or Hindi: असमिया ब्राह्मण or Hindi: असमी ब्राह्मण), Kalitas, and Ahoms among others, the Brahmin community is comparatively small. Assamese Brahmins are found mostly in Lower Assam, Upper-Assam and throughout the entire Brahmaputra Valley. Assamese Brahmins are believed to have their origins in Kannauj, Uttar Pradesh, who generally migrated during Kamarupa Kingdom period to Lower Assam and then to rest of Brahmaputra Valley and some migrated also from far off Rajasthan to that of Karnataka. Brahmins in Assam are same as per their faith and customs with that of any other Brahmin community across India. Each Brahmin family within the community carries a specific Gotra (Proper Brahmin Identity Surname) which is specific for each family, thereby indicating their origin. Sarma, Barooah, Goswami, Sharma, Chakravarty, are a few common Assamese Brahmin surnames, among many others. (See also: Assamese Brahmins)

Bihar

In Bihar, majority of Brahmins are Kanyakubja Brahmins, Bhumihar Brahmins and Maithil Brahmins with a significant population of Sakaldiwiya or Shakdwipi Brahmins. With the decline of Mughal Empire, in the area of south of Avadh, in the fertile rive-rain rice growing areas of Benares, Gorakhpur, Deoria, Ghazipur, Ballia and Bihar and on the fringes of Bengal, it was the 'military' or Bhumihar Brahmins who strengthened their sway.[8] The distinctive 'caste' identity of Bhumihar Brahman emerged largely through military service, and then confirmed by the forms of continuous 'social spending' which defined a man and his kin as superior and lordly.[9] In 19th century, many of the Bhumihar Brahmins were zamindars.[10] Of the 67,000 Hindus in the Bengal Army in 1842, 28,000 were identified as Rajputs and 25,000 as Brahmins, a category that included Bhumihar Brahmins.[11] The Brahmin presence in the Bengal Army was reduced in the late nineteenth century because of their perceived primary role as mutineers in the Mutiny of 1857,[11] led by Mangal Pandey. The Kingdom of Kashi belonged to Bhumihar Brahmins and big zamindari like Bettiah and Tekari belonged to them.

Maharashtra

According to the Census of 1931 the population of the Brahmins in Maharashtra was 781,448, which constituted 2.39 percent of the total population.[12] Maharashtra Brahmins have several sub-castes. The Census Report of the Bombay Province of 1911 lists all the sub-castes of the Maharashtra Brahmins, which are as follows:

  1. Chitpavan Konkanastha Brahmins
  2. Deshastha Brahmins
  3. Devrukhe
  4. Golak or Gowardhan
  5. Jawal or khot
  6. Kanva
  7. Karhade Brahmin
  8. Kuwant or Kramavant
  9. Maitrayani
  10. Palshikar
  11. Samavedi
  12. Savvashe
  13. Tirgul or Trigartha, etc.

Mrs. Irawati Karve has recorded a sub-caste namely Charak Brahmins around Nagpur, belonging to the Krishna Yajurved branch. However, these several sub-castes are broadly grouped into three main divisions, namely Deshastha, Konkanastha and Karhade Brahmins. The Saraswat Brahmins of the Pancha-Gouda group is said to be the fourth branch. Unlike other Maharashtra Brahmins Saraswats traditionally eat fish and meat. Devarukhe and Kramvant Brahmins inhabit in Konkan but originally they were Deshasthas. They are the priests for the lower castes. The Kramvant Brahmins migrated to Kokan from Paithan in historic times.

In Maharashtra, Panch Dravid Brahmins are dravids from Maharastra. They are classified into five groups: Chitpavan Konkanastha Brahmins, Gaud Saraswat Brahmins, Deshastha Brahmins, Karhade Brahmin, and Devrukhe. As the name indicates, Kokanastha Brahmins are from Konkan area. Gaud Saraswat Brahmins are from Konkan region or they may come from Goa or Karnataka, Deshastha Brahmins are from plains of Maharashtra, Karhade Brahmins are perhaps from Karhatak (an ancient region in India that included present day south Maharashtra and northern Karnataka) and Devrukhe Brahmins are from Devrukh near Ratnagiri.

Daivadnya is another caste, claiming its descent from Maga Brahmins is found all along the west coast of India. Though Sringeri Shankaracharya recognizes them as Dravida, this claim is not always accepted by other orthodox creeds.

Gujarat

Aboti Brahmin • Anavil Brahmin • Audichya Brahmins • Bardai Brahmins • Bhattmewada Brahmins • Chauriyasi Mewada Brahmin • Khedaval Brahmin • Modh Brahmins • Nandwana Brahmins Shrigaud Brahmins• Nagar Brahmins • Sachora Brahmins • Sidhra-Rudhra Brahmins • Shrimali Brahmins • Rajya purohit Brahmins. Sompura Brahmins. Kapil Brahmin (known to be heiretted from Kapil muni) originaly resident of KAVI village in Jambusar taluka, now most of them residing in Bharuch,Vadodara and Surat.kanojiya-bhaglani,lakhlani,bhuvadiya,kailaya,sardavarti,ramani,pingal,kutch bhatt kanojiya bramin mandal,in kutch,morbi,jamnagar,rajkot,saradiya,nagalpar,medhpar-junagadh in all gujarat

Haryana

Madhya Pradesh

In western Madhyapradesh, especially in the "malwa" region, there are many "shrigoud" brahmins. "Shrigoud Brahmins" are the root of all the other classified Brahmins. "Gaud" means Root. The word "Brahman" emerges out from Lord Brahma.

Nepal

Brahmins are the second largest caste group in Nepal, Chhetri(Kshatriya) being the first. Brahmins were inhabitants of Nepal from the prehistoric time. There are references about brahmins of Nepal in bansawali and purans. Brahmins and kshetriyas are portrayed as outsiders, who migrated from India by the armed political groups mainly maoists for recruiting the members of other ethnic groups in Nepal.

Punjab

The Brahmins of the Punjab region are chiefly Saraswat Brahmins. They have a special association with the Punjab since they take their name from the river, Saraswati.

In Punjab, the Saraswat Brahmins are further divided into following main sections.

1. Panja jati (six families), the highest subgroup of Punjabi Brahmins whose surnames are Jaitly, Trikha, Kumoria, Jinghan, and Mohla.

2. Barahis (twelvers), who marry among twelve castes only. This group belongs to the Shakadweepi Brahmins/ Maga Brahmins.

3. Bawanjais (fifty-twoers), who marry among fifty-two houses only.

4. Athwans (seven families/seveners) and include Joshis, Kurals, Bhanots, Sands, Pathaks, Bharadwajs, Shouries. These eight families marry among each other.

5. Mohyals- the warrior brahmin race. They are a distinct category of Brahmins who combine military knowledge with learning. They strictly refrain from performing priestly duties, often to the point of excommunicating anyone who violates that rule. They are a group comprising of seven clans (Balis, Bhimwals, Chhibber, Datts, Mohan, Laus and Vaids). They generally own lands and are mostly involved in military and administrative services. They eat meat and are not very strict in the observance of religious taboos. They also marry within the seven clans.

6. Bhaskars Gotra Vashisht originating from a place "Badu ki Gusaiyaan" now in Pakistan.

Karnataka

Kannada Brahmins are Brahmins whose mother-tongue is the Kannada language. Nearly all of them hail from the south Indian state of Karnataka. Kannada Brahmins are known to have preserved the purest form of Vedic Hinduism. It is in this region that the rituals and Vedic Chanting are done with great accuracy. Kannada Brahmins follow one of the three schools of Vedanta philosophy, which are Advaita, Vishitadvaita and Dvaita. These communities are further divided into different sub-caste's based on the locality of their ancestry. For further information please follow the link Kannada Brahmins.

Havyakas means Brahmin in Karnataka Smarthas and Madhwas are also a set of Brahmins

Rajasthan

There are lots of type of brahmin in rajasthan. Bhardwaj, Dadhich, Gaur, Gujar gaur, Kaushik, vashishta Jangid Brahmins(viswbrahmins/viswakarmas of Rajasthan) Most Brahmins in India are strictly vegetarian

Jammu & Kashmir

There are lots of type of brahmans in Jammu & Kashmir. The Brahmans of Jammu Province are known as Dogra Brahmans (or Dogra Pandit), whereas Brahmans of Kashmir are known as Kashmiri Brahmans (or Kashmiri Pandits). There are also Brahmans known as Kishtwari Brahmans, Bhaderwahi Brahmans, Poonchi Brahmans, Mirpuri Brahmans, and Punjabi Brahmans in small numbers in Jammu & Kashmir.

Dogra Brahmans

The Brahmans of Jammu are known as Dogra Brahmins. Some popular Dogra Brahmans are Prem Chand Dogra (Mr Universe 1987 - Bodybuilding), Pandit Prem Nath Dogra, Pandit Shiv Kumar Sharma, noted santoor player; Padma Sachdev (writer, lyricist) and Pandit Prem Nath Shastri (writer).

Uttar Pradesh

In Uttar Pradesh from west to east: Sanadhya, Gauda and Tyagi (western Uttar Pradesh), Kanyakubja (Central Uttar Pradesh), Sarayuparin (Central Uttar Pradesh, Eastern, Northeast, and Southeast Uttar Pradesh) and Maithil (Varanasi and Agra region), Suryadhwaja Brahmins (Western Uttar Pradesh), Southwestern Uttar Pradesh, i.e. Bundelkhand has a dense population of Jujhotia brahmins (branch of Kanyakubja brahmins: ref. Between History & Legend: Power & Status in Bundelkhand by Ravindra K Jain). On the Jijhoutia clan of Bhumihar Brahmins, William Crooke writes, "A branch of the Kanaujia Brahmins (Kanyakubja Brahmins) who take their name from the country of Jajakshuku, which is mentioned in the Madanpur inscription."[13] Mathure or mathuria Brahmins 'choubeys' are limited to Mathura area.

Bengal

There are many sub-castes, including Rarhi, Barendra, Saiba (Rudraja) and Agradani. Some of the gotras are Savarna, Sandilya, Bharadwaj, Kashyap and Vatsya.

Odisha/Orissa

The Sanskrit textBrāhmaṇotpatti-Mārtaṇḍa by Pt. Harikrishna Śāstri mentions according to which a king named Utkala invited brahmins from Gangetic Valley for performing a yajna in Jagannath-Puri; when the yajna ended the invited brahmins laid the foundation of the Lord Jagannath there and settled there for serving the Lord

The Utkala Brahmins are of two classes 1) Srotriya(vaidika) and 2) Asrotiya or (Sevaka) Brahmin.Again there are sub-classes in these two classes

The Utkala or Oriya Brahmin Surnames are Acharya, Bishi, Chaturvedi, Dash, Dash Sharma, Dikshit (Dixit), Debta (Devta), Gantayat, Kar,Suara,Mahasuara,Garabadu, Mishra, Sharma, Nath, Choudhury, Sahu, Sahoo, Dyansamantray, Panigrahi,BhattaMishra, Guru, Rajguru, Rayguru, Mahapatra, Pani, Panigrahi, Mohapatra(some of them), Rath, RathSharma, Sharma,Patri,Satpathy, Sadangi, Pani, Thakur(found mostly in Kalahandi and Sambalpur), Pati, Vedi, Dwivedi, Trivedi, Sarangi, Pattajoshi, Joshi, Panda, Behera(found mostly in Kalahandi and Sambalpur), Sar(some of them), Sabat, BadaPanda, PujaPanda, Sabata, Nanda, Purohit, Pujari, Pathi, Nepak, Devasharma, Tripathy, Praharaj, Padhi, Udgata, Hota, Otta.

Pancha Dravida

Panch Dravida (the five classes of Southern India): 1. Andhra, 2. Dravida (Tamil and Kerala), 3. Karnataka, 4. Maharashtra and Konkon, and 5. Gujarat.[6]

In Maharashtra, Panch Dravid Brahmins are classified into five groups: Chitpavan Konkanastha Brahmins, Gaud Saraswat Brahmin, Deshastha Brahmin, Karhade Brahmin, and Devrukhe. As the name indicates, Kokanastha Brahmin are from the Konkan area. Gaud Saraswat Brahmins are from the Konkan region or they may come from Goa or Karnataka. Deshastha Brahmin are from the plains of Maharashtra. Karhade Brahmins are perhaps from Karhatak (an ancient region in India that included present-day south Maharashtra and northern Karnataka) and Devrukhe Brahmins are from Devrukh near Ratnagiri.

Daivajnas of Konkan are recognised as Panchadravida by Shringeri Shankaracharya.

In Andhra Pradesh, Brahmins are broadly classified into 2 groups: Vaidiki Brahmins (meaning educated in vedas and performing religious vocations) and Niyogi (performing only secular vocation). They are further divided into several sub-castes. However, majority of the Brahmins, both Vaidika and Niyogi, perform only secular professions.[14]

In Tamil Nadu, Brahmins form two main groups, Iyers, who follow the Advaita (non-dualism) philosophy and Iyengars, who follow the Vishistadvaita (qualified non-dualism) philosophy. The Iyer and Iyengar communities are further divided into several subgroups, depending on differences in philosophical orientation.

Burma

Historically, Brahmins, known as ponna (ပုဏ္ဏား) in modern-day Burmese (Until the 1900s, ponna referred to Indians who had arrived prior to colonial rule, distinct from the kala, Indians who arrived during British rule), formed an influential group prior to British colonialism. During the Konbaung dynasty, court Brahmins were consulted by kings for moving royal capitals, waging wars, making offerings to Buddhist sites like the Mahamuni Buddha, and for astrology.[15] Burmese Brahmins can be divided into four general groups, depending on their origins:

According to Burmese chronicles, brahmins in Burma were subject to the four-caste system, which included brahmanas (ဗြာဟ္မဏ), kshatriyas (ခတ္တိယ), vaishya (ဝေဿ), and shudra (သုဒ္ဒ). Because the Burmese monarchy enforced the caste system for Indians, Brahmins who broke caste traditions and laws were subject to punishment. In the Arakanese kingdom, punished Brahmins often became kyun ponna (ကျွန်ပုဏ္ဏား), literally 'slave Brahmins', who made flower offerings to Buddha images and performed menial tasks. During the Konbaung dynasty, caste was indicated by the number of salwe (threads) worn; brahmins wore nine, while the lowest caste wore none. Brahmins are also fundamental in the Nine-God cult, called the Nine Divinities (Phaya Ko Su ဘုရားကိုးစု) which is essentially a Burmese puja  (puzaw in Burmese) of appeasing nine divinities, Buddha and the eight arahats, or a group of nine deities, five Hindu gods and four nats.[15] This practice continues to be practiced in modern-day Burma.

Gotras and pravaras

Brahmins classify themselves on the basis of their patrilineal descent from a notable ancestor. These ancestors are either ancient Indian sages or kshatriyas (warriors) who chose to become Brahmins. The eight major gotras that trace descent from sages are: Kanva, Jamadagni, Bharadvâja, Gautama, Atri, Vasishtha, Kashyapa and Agastya gotra. Two gotras that trace descent from kshatriyas are Harita and Vishvamitra gotra.

In general, gotra denotes any person who traces descent in an unbroken male line from a common male ancestor. Pāṇini defines gotra for grammatical purposes as 'apatyam pautraprabhrti gotram' (IV. 1. 162), which means: "the word gotra denotes the progeny (of a sage) beginning with the son's son". When a person says, "I am Kashypasa-gotra", he means that he traces his descent from the ancient sage Kashyapa by unbroken male descent. This enumeration of eight primary gotras seems to have been known to Pāṇini. These gotras are not directly connected to Prajapathy or latter brama. The offspring (apatya) of these Eight are gotras and others than these are called 'gotrâvayava'.[16]

The gotras are arranged in groups, e. g. there are according to the Âsvalâyana-srautasûtra four subdivisions of the Vasishtha gana, viz. Upamanyu, Parāshara, Kundina and Vasishtha (other than the first three). Each of these four again has numerous sub-sections, each being called gotra. So the arrangement is first into ganas, then into pakshas, then into individual gotras. The first has survived in the Bhrigu and Āngirasa gana. According to Baudh., the principal eight gotras were divided into pakshas. The pravara of Upamanyu is Vasishtha, Bharadvasu, Indrapramada; the pravara of the Parâshara gotra is Vasishtha, Shâktya, Pârâsharya; the pravara of the Kundina gotra is Vasishtha, Maitrâvaruna, Kaundinya and the pravara of Vasishthas other than these three is simply Vasishtha. It is therefore that some define pravara as the group of sages that distinguishes the founder (lit. the starter) of one gotra from another.

There are two kinds of pravaras, 1) sishya-prasishya-rishi-parampara, and 2) putrparampara. Gotrapravaras can be ekarsheya, dwarsheya, triarsheya, pancharsheya, saptarsheya, and up to 19 rishis. Kashyapasa gotra has at least two distinct pravaras in Andhra Pradesh: one with three sages (triarsheya pravara) and the other with seven sages (saptarsheya pravara). This pravara may be either sishya-prasishya-rishi-parampara or putraparampara. Similarly, Srivatsasa gotra has five sages or is called Pancharsheya and are the descendants of Jamadagni. When it is sishya-prasishya-rishi-parampara marriage is not acceptable if half or more than half of the rishis are same in both bride and bridegroom gotras. If it is putraparampara, marriage is totally unacceptable even if one rishi matches.[17]

Sects and Rishis

Due to the diversity in religious and cultural traditions and practices, and the Vedic schools which they belong to, Brahmins are further divided into various subcastes. During the sutra period, roughly between 1000 BCE to 200 BCE, Brahmins became divided into various Shakhas (branches), based on the adoption of different Vedas and different rescension Vedas. Sects for different denominations of the same branch of the Vedas were formed, under the leadership of distinguished teachers among Brahmins.

There are several Brahmin law givers, such as Angirasa, Apasthambha, Atri, Bhrugu, Brihaspati, Boudhayana, Daksha, Gautam, Harita, Katyayana, Likhita, Manu,[18] Parasara, Samvarta, Shankha, Shatatapa, Ushanasa, Vashishta, Vishnu, Vyasa, Yajnavalkya and Yama. These twenty-one rishis were the propounders of Smritis. The oldest among these smritis are Apastamba, Baudhayana, Gautama, and Vasishta Sutras.[19]

Descendants of the Brahmins

Many Indians and non-Indians claim descent from the Vedic Rishis of both Brahmin and non-Brahmin descent. For example the Dash and Nagas are said to be the descendants of Kashyapa Muni. Visvakarmas are the descendants of Pancha Rishis or Brahmarishies. According to Yajurveda and brahmanda purana, they are Sanagha, Sanathana, Abhuvanasa, Prajnasa, and Suparnasa. The Kani tribe of South India claim to descend from Agastya Muni.

The Gondhali, Kanet, Bhot, Lohar, Dagi, and Hessis claim to be from Renuka Devi.

The Kasi Kapadi Sudras claim to originate from the Brahmin Sukradeva. Their duty was to transfer water to the sacred city of Kashi.[20]

Dadheech Brahmins/dayama brahmin trace their roots from Dadhichi Rishi. Many Jats clans claim to descend from Dadhichi Rishi while the Dudi Jats claim to be in the linear of Duda Rishi.

Lord Buddha was a descendant of Angirasa through Gautama. There too were Kshatiryas of other clans to whom members descend from Angirasa, to fulfill a childless king's wish.[21]

The backward-caste Matangs claim to descend from Matang Muni, who became a Brahmin by his karma.

According to one legend, the nomadic tribe of Kerala, the Kakkarissi, are derived from the mouth of Garuda, the vehicle of Vishnu, and came out Brahmin.[22]

Brahmins taking up other duties

Brahmins have taken on many professions - from being priests, ascetics and scholars to warriors and business people, as is attested for example in Kalhana's Rajatarangini. Brahmins with the qualities of Kshatriyas are known as 'Brahmakshatriyas'. An example is the avatara Parashurama who is considered an avataram of Vishnu. Sage Parashurama was a powerful warrior who had defeated the Haiheya kshatriyas twenty one times, was an expert in the use of weapons, and trained others to fight without weapons. The Bhumihar Brahmins were established when Parashurama destroyed the Kshatriya race, and he set up in their place the descendants of Brahmins, who, after a time, having mostly abandoned their priestly functions (although some still perform), took to land-owning.[23] Many brahmins took up the profession of medicine. They are Vaidya brahmins called Baidya Brahmins of Bengal [gupta, dasgupta and senguptas] are descendents of dhanavantari , the god of medicine and father of Ayurveda.

The Brahmakhatris caste, descendants of the Khatris, however, are a business caste/community of Punjab and belong to the Vaishya caste. Khatri has often been misinterpreted as a variation of the word Kshatriya, meaning warrior, however there are no records of any Khatri kingdoms or empires in Indian history and this claim to Kshatriya is recently made in the 20th century.

Perhaps the word Brahma-kshatriya refers to a person belonging to the heritage of both castes.[24] However, among the Royal Rajput households, brahmins who became the personal teachers and protectors of the Royal princes rose to the status of Rajpurohit and taught the princes everything including martial arts. They would also become the keepers of the Royal lineage and its history. They would also be the protectors of the throne in case the regent was orphaned and a minor.

Kshatriyan Brahmin is a term associated with people of both caste's components.[25]

The Pallavas were an example of Brahmakshatriyas as that is what they called themselves. King Lalitaditya Muktapida of Kashmir ruled all of India and even Central Asia.

Lord Viswakarma was a brahmin. He is believed to be the creator of this world. His followers are now know as viswkarmas or viswabrahmins.

King Rudravarma of Champa (Vietnam) of 657 A.D. was the son of a Brahmin father.[24]

King Jayavarma I of Kambuja (Kampuchea) of 781 A.D. was a Brahma-kshatriya.[24]

Brahmins with the qualities of a Vaisya or merchant are known as 'Brahmvyasya'. An example of such persons are people of the Ambastha[26] caste, which exist in places like South India. They perform medical work - they have from ancient times practiced the Ayurveda and have been Vaidyas (or doctors).

Many Pallis of South India claim to be Brahmins (while others claim to be Agnikula Kshatriyas.)[27] Kulaman Pallis are nicknamed by outsiders as Kulaman Brahmans.[27] Hemu from Rewari, Haryana was also a Brahmin by birth.

Practices

Brahmins, adhere to the principles of the Vedas, Manu Smriti, Sanatana Dharma, and can be found in any of the different religions of Hinduism, such as acceptance of the Vedas. Brāhmaṇas have six occupational duties, of which three are compulsory—namely, studying the Vedas, worshiping the Deity and giving charity. By teaching, by inducing others to worship the Deity, and by accepting charity back, the brāhmaṇas receive the necessities of life. This is also confirmed in the Manu-saḿhitā:

ṣaṇṇāḿ tu karmaṇām asya

trīṇi karmāṇi jīvikā

yajanādhyāpane caiva

viśuddhāc ca pratigrahaḥ

A brāhmaṇa cannot take up any professional occupational duty for his livelihood. The śāstras especially stress that if one claims to be a brāhmaṇa.[28] Brahmins believe in Sarvejanāssukhinobhavaṃtu—Let the entire society be happy and prosperous and Vasudhaika kuṭuṃbakaṃ—the whole world is one family. Many Brahmins are reformers. Brahmins practice vegetarianism or lacto-vegetarianism which has been a custom since several centuries dating back to B.C . Following this custom is mandatory in brahmin culture. However, some amongst the Brahmins inhabiting cold regions of Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Nepal, and coastal areas like Bengal, eat fish called as pesco-vegetarians

Sampradayas

The three sampradayas (traditions) of Brahmins, especially in South India are the Smarta sampradaya, the Srivaishnava sampradaya and the Madhva sampradaya.

Vaishnavism

Shaivism

Saivism (sometimes called Shivaism) is a belief system where Lord Shiva is worshipped as the Supreme Lord. It is a derivative faith of the core Vedic tradition. Saiva sects contains many sub-sects, such as Rudrasaivas, Veerasiavas, Paramasaivas, etc.

Miscellaneous sects

There are additional sampradayas as well which are not as widely followed as the rest.

The Mahima Dharma or "Satya Mahima Alekha Dharma" was founded by the Brahmin Mukanda Das of present-day Orissa, popularly know by followers as Mahima Swami according to the Bhima Bhoi text.[29] He was born in the last part of 18th century in Baudh ex-state as a son of Ananta Mishra. He was Brahmin by caste as mentioned in Mahima Vinod of Bhima Bhoi in Vol.11. This sampradaya is similar to Vaishnavism. Although the members of this sect do not worship Lord Vishnu as their Ishta-Deva, they believe that the Srimad Bhagavatam is sacred. The founder of this sect was a Vaishnavite before founding the new order.[29] This sampradaya was founded in the latter part of the 18th century.[29]

There is also the Avadhoot Panth, wherein Lord Dattatreya and his forms such as Narasimha Saraswati and Sai Baba of Shirdi are worshiped. Lord Dattatreya is worshiped by many as the Hindu trinity - Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva in one divine entity. Many even worship Dattatreya as an avatar of Vishnu or of Shiva.

Brahmins in other religions

Buddhism

The Buddha redefined the word "brahman" so as to become a synonym for arahant, replacing a distinction based on birth with one based on spiritual attainment.[30][31]

A defining of feature of the Buddha's teachings is self-sufficiency, so much so as to render the Brahminical priesthood entirely redundant.[32] Dr.U.N Roy a brahmin promoted buddhist art and philosophy, he also contributed his article to Association for sanskrit studies.

The notion of ritual purity provided a conceptual foundation for the caste system, by identifying occupations and duties associated with impure or taboo objects as being themselves impure. Regulations imposing such a system of ritual purity and taboos are absent from the Buddhist monastic code, and not generally regarded as being part of Buddhist teachings[33] To the contrary, the early Buddhist scriptures defined purity as determined by one's state of mind, and refer to anyone who behaves unethically, of whatever caste, as "rotting within", or "a rubbish heap of impurity".[34]

There are many places in which the Buddha explains his use of the word brahman. At Sutta Nipata 1.7 Vasala Sutta, verse 12, he states: "Not by birth is one an outcast; not by birth is one a brahman. By deed one becomes an outcast, by deed one becomes a brahman."[35] An entire chapter of the Dhammapada is devoted to showing how a true brahman in the Buddha's use of the word is one who is of totally pure mind, namely, an arahant.[36]

Jainism

Indian kingdoms

Sikhism

Many writers of the Guru Granth Sahib are of the Bhatt surname.[38] The Sikh composed Mathura Bhatt's fourteen verses are seven each in praise of Guru Ram Das and Guru Arjan.

There are also several Mohyals (Brahmin warriors) in the Sikh community.

Contributions to society

Politics

During the Indian independence movement, many Brahmins were at the forefront of the struggle for freedom and later Indian politics, including Samrat Hem Chandra Vikramaditya (also called Hemu), Mangal Pandey, Nana Sahib Peshwa, Rani Laxmibai of Jhansi, Tatya Tope, Baikuntha Shukla, Chandrashekar Azad, Yogendra Shukla, Womesh Chandra Bonnerjee, Swami Sahajanand Saraswati, Adyakrantikarak Vasudev Balvant Phadke, Chaphekar Brothers, Anant Kanhere, Vinayak Deshapande, Vishwanath Vaishampayan (famous as "Bacchan", worked with Bhagat Singh, Chandrashekhar Azad, Sri Satyanarayana Shukla, Basawon Singh (Sinha), Pandit Bhola Shukla, Balgangadhar Tilak, Gopal Krishna Gokhale, (Rajguru, Ramprasad Bismil, Chandrashekhar Azad, Vanchinathan, Vinayak Damodar Savarkar, Ganesh Damodar Savarkar, Prativadi Bhayankara Venkatacharya "Bhayankarachari", Tanguturi Prakasam, C. Rajagopalachari, Laxmi Raman Acharya, Sri Krishna Sinha, Gobind Ballabh Pant, Kamalapati Tripathi, Sheel Bhadra Yajee, Ravishankar Shukla, Kailashnath Katju, Sir Tej Bahadur Sapru, Motilal Nehru, Shyama Prasad Mukherjee and others. Jawaharlal Nehru, the first Prime Minister of India and Sarvapalli Radhakrishnan, the first Vice President of India, were also Brahmins. Communist leaders like E. M. S. Namboodiripad, Hiren Mukherjee, S. A. Dange, P. C. Joshi, Acharya P. K. Atre and many others were Brahmins. Presently finance minister Pranab Mukherjee, Railway Minister Mamata Banerjee, Chief Minister of Paschim Bangal West Bengal Budhadev Bhattacharya, Union Minister for Rural Develeopment C. P. Joshi and President of National Commission for Women of India Girija Vyas are brahmins.

Brahmins who became Prime Ministers of India include Jawaharlal Nehru, Morarji Desai, P. V. Narasimha Rao and Atal Behari Vajpayee. Brahmin Presidents of India include V. V. Giri, R. Venkataraman, S. Radhakrishnan and Shankar Dayal Sharma.

In Pakistan, Dr. Mahesh Kumar Malani presently Member of Parliament from ruling Pakistan Peoples Party is also Brahmin.

Military

Medieval Hindu kings such as King Porus of the Punjab, Samrat Hem Chandra Vikramaditya, also called Hemu, who had established 'Hindu Raj' in North India after defeating Akbar's forces at Agra and Delhi, and had his coronation or Rajyabhishake at Purana Quila in Delhi on 7 October 1556, after winning 22 battles continuously, without losing any, was a Bhargava and Dhusar Brahmin.

Several chiefs of the Indian Army have been brahmins, including General Arun VaidGeneral Krishnaswamy Sundarji, General T.N. Raina, General Bipin Chandra Joshi, General Sundararajan Padmanabhan, General V. N. Sharma.

In the Indian Air Force too, brahmins have reached the apex rank of Air Chief. Among these are Air Marshal Subroto Mukherjee, Air Chief Marshal Swaroop Krishan Kaul, Air Chief Marshal Srinivasapuram Krishnaswamy, and Air Chief Marshal S.P. Tyagi. India's first and only cosmonaut, Wing Commander Rakesh Sharma, is also a brahmin.

In the Indian Navy, Admiral A. K. Chaterji, and Admiral J. G. Nadkarni are brahmins who rose to the heights of their service. Captain Mahendra Nath Mulla, a Kashmiri Pandit, commander of the INS Khukri received the Maha Vir Chakra during the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971, for his gallantry at the helm of his stricken ship.

Scholars and writers

Brahmin scholars and writers include Pāṇini, Satyabrata Nath, Patanjali, Kalidas, Satya Sandhani Haridutta Dash Chanakya, Banabhatta, Goswami Tulsidas, Sur Das, Keshav das, Behari Saint Dnyaneshwar, Eknath, Samarth Ramdas. Nobel laureate Rabindranath Tagore and others like Mahapandit Rahul Sankrityayan, Ramdhari Singh 'Dinkar', Jiddu Krishnamurthy, Hazariprasad Dwivedi, Sumitranandan Pant, Subramanya Bharathy, Tarashankar Bandopadhyay, Ramvriksh Benipuri, Caitanya MahaprabhuSuryakant Tripathi Nirala, Sarat Chandra Chattopadhyay, A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada, Bankim Chandra Chatterjee, Srilal Shukla and Manohar Shyam Joshi. Other Brahmin scholars include Pandurang Vaman Kane, Ram Sharan Sharma and Debiprasad Chattopadhyaya. Modern writers include R. K. Narayan, cartoonist R. K. Laxman and journalist Indra Kant Mishra.

Sciences

Scientists from the Brahmin fold include Varahamihira, Brahmagupta, Nobel laureates Sir C. V. Raman and his nephew Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar, agricultural scientist M. S. Swaminathan, Prof. A. K. Joshi (molecular plant breeder), ethno-sociologist M. N. Srinivas, and mathematicians Srinivasa Ramanujan, Shakuntala Devi and C. P. Ramanujam. Raja Ramanna, who was instrumental in making India a nuclear weapons state, was also a Brahmin. PVN Acharya (1924–1993), a "Sri-Vaishnava" Brahmin, received his PhD in Biochemistry with highest honors from the University of Paris-Sorbonne, and published papers with his professor, the famous French scientist Edgar Lederer. As a student in Paris and later as a biochemist in Madison, Wisconsin, PV Narasimh Acharya conducted groundbreaking work in tuberculosis and was the first scientist to discover that irreparable DNA damage is caused by low-dose ionizing radiation, environmental pollutants and the food additives nitrites and nitrates, and that such damage to the DNA is a causal factor in premature aging and cancer.[39][40][41][42][43][44][45][46][47]

Sports

In cricket, major names include Sunil Manohar Gavaskar, Sachin Tendulkar, Rahul Dravid, Sourav Ganguly, Dilip Balwanth Vengsarkar, Ajit Wadekar, Srinivasan Venkatraghavan, Erapalli Anandrao S Prasanna, Bagawath Subramania Chandrashekhar, Gundappa Vishwanath, Laxman Sivaramakrishnan, Chetan Sharma, Parthasarathy Sharma, Ravi Shastri, Krishnamachari Srikkanth, Anjali Vedpathak, Vangipurappu Venkata Sai Laxman, Anil Kumble, Javagal Srinath, Venkatesh Prasad, Ajay Sharma, Dinesh Karthik, Murali Kartik, Rohit Sharma, Ishant Sharma, Amit Mishra, Subramaniam Badrinath, Suresh Raina, Maneesh Pandey, Sadagoppan Ramesh, Ajit Agarkar, Hrishikesh Kanitkar, Sunil Joshi and many more. Other sports names include the world chess champion Vishwanathan Anand, Kirti Azad (cricketer and M.P.), and 1890s national tennis champion Narumanchi Narayanamurthy from Tenali, Andhra Pradesh.

Arts

Saint musicians include Thyagaraja, Purandara Dasa, Vyasatirtha, Raghavendra Swami, Muthuswami Dikshitar and Shyama Sastri. In entertainment, prominent names include S. P. Balasubrahmanyam, Vishnuvardhan, Usha Uthup, Mithun Chakraborty, Kavita Krishnamurthy, Hrishikesh Mukherjee, Hema Malini, Basu Chatterjee, Sudhir PhaDke, Balgandharva, Dr. Vasantrao Deshpande, Ashok Kumar, Kishore Kumar, Mukesh, Shreya Ghoshal, Udit Narayan, Shantanu Mukherjee, Abhijeet, Kumar Sanu, Alka Yagnik, Madhuri Dixit, Amrita Rao, Sharmila Tagore, Aditi Govitrikar, Gayatri Joshi, Sonali Bendre, Rani Mukherjee, Kajol, Vidya Balan, and Sonali Kulkarni. Tansen, Baiju Bawra the musician of Akbar's court was born a Brahmin. Rati Agnihotri, Apurva Agnihotri, Sunil Dutt, Sanjay Dutt, Kamal Hassan, Mausumi Chatterji, Chunki Pande, Rekha and Meenakshi Sheshadri, and Mani Ratnam are also Brahmins.

Several notable names in Indian classical music belong to the Brahmin community, such as Bhimsen Joshi, Pandit Ravi Shankar, Veena Doreswamy Iyengar, Mangalampalli Balamurali Krishna (popularly Dr. Balamurali Krishna), Pandit Jasraj, Shivkumar Sharma, etc.

Hindu priests

Brahmin saints include Adi Shankaracharya, Ramanuja, Madhwacharya, Mandana Mishra, Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, Goswami Tulsidas, Surdas, Vallabacharya, Dnyaneshwar, Ramakrishna Paramhansa, Ramana Maharshi and Shree Kripalu Maharaj.

Hindu avatarams

Some incarnations (avatarams) of Lord Vishnu were Brahmins. Parashurama, the son of sage Jamadagni, is considered a redeemer of virtue and set the stage for nobility to manifest as Lord Rama, the divine king, by ridding the world of unscrupulous and unjust rulers - Haiheyas. As Vamana, a dwarf Bramhin, Vishnu who vanquished Bali, an ancient king of Kerala who became more powerful than the Devas in piety. Adi Shankaracharya is also considered an avatar of Shiva in some traditions.

Business

Modern business leaders include the founder of Infosys, N. R. Narayana Murthy,UB Group Vijay Mallya, Dr. Gururaj "Desh" Deshpande, the founder of the Deshpande Center for Technological Innovation at MIT, Jaypee group, The Cognizant.

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ Monier-Williams: inspired, inwardly stirred, wise, learned, etc.
  2. ↑ 'Dvija was used more frequently for Brahmins, but it also included Kṣatriyas and Vaiśyas who were "reborn through investiture with the sacred knowledge" - Monier-Williams.
  3. ↑ A detailed article on Brahmins at Vepachedu Educational Foundation
  4. ↑ Brāhmanotpatti Martanda, cf. Dorilal Sharma, p.41-42
  5. ↑ Mentioned by Jogendra Nath Bhattacharya in "Hindu Castes and Sects." A detailed article on various castes and groups of Brahmins at www.vedah.net [1]
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 P. 849 Gujarat State Gazetteers By Gujarat (India), 1984
  7. ↑ http://www.vedah.net/manasanskriti/Brahmins.html#Brahmins_of_Andhra_Pradesh
  8. ↑ Bayly, Christopher Alan (1983). Rulers, Townsmen, and Bazaars: North Indian Society in the Age of British Expansion, 1770-1870. Cambridge University Press. p. 489 (at p 18). ISBN 9780521310543. 
  9. ↑ Bayly, Susan (2001). Caste, Society and Politics in India from the Eighteenth Century to the Modern Age. Cambridge University Press. p. 440 (at p 203). ISBN 9780521798426. 
  10. ↑ Jaffrelot, Christophe (2003). India's silent revolution: the rise of the lower castes in North India. New York: Columbia University Press. pp. 68. ISBN 978-0231127868. OCLC 50064516. 
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 The Boxers, China, and the World. Rowman & Littlefield. 2007. p. 231 (at p 63). ISBN 978-0742553958. 
  12. ↑ Maharashtra State Gazetteers
  13. ↑ Crooke, William (1999). The Tribes and Castes of the North-Western Provinces and Oudh. 4. 6A, Shahpur Jat, New Delhi-110049, India: Asian Educational Services. ISBN 8120612108. 
  14. ↑ A detailed article on Brahmins of Andhra Pradesh at Vepachedu Educational Foundation [2]
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 Leider, Jacques P.. "Specialists for Ritual, Magic and Devotion: The Court Brahmins of the Konbaung Kings". The Journal of Burma Studies 10: 159–180. 
  16. ↑ A detailed article on Gotras of Brahmins at Vepachedu Educational Foundation [3]
  17. ↑ A detailed article on Gotras and pravaras of Brahmins at Vepachedu Educational Foundation [4]
  18. ↑ Manu Smriti on learning of the Vedas
  19. ↑ A detailed article on various sects and rishis of Brahmins at Vepachedu Educational Foundation [5]
  20. ↑ Bhanu, B. V., People of India, p. 948.
  21. ↑ Classical Dictionary of Hindu Mythology and Religion, Geography, History and Literature, by John Dowson, p. 17.
  22. ↑ History of Indian Theatre, by Manohar Laxman Varadpande, p. 227.
  23. ↑ Crooke, William (1999). The Tribes and Castes of the North-Western Provinces and Oudh. 6A, Shahpur Jat, New Delhi-110049, India: Asian Educational Services. pp. 1809 (at page 64). ISBN 8120612108. 
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 24.2 P. 201, Professor A.L. Basham, My Guruji and Problems and Perspectives of Ancient ...By Sachindra Kumar Maity
  25. ↑ P. 29 Cultural History from the Matsyapurāṇa By Sureshachandra Govindlal Kantawala
  26. ↑ P. 37 Asian Medical Systems: A Comparative Study By Charles Leslie
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 P. 13 Castes And Tribes Of Southern India By Edgar Thurston, K. Rangachari
  28. ↑ http://vedabase.net/sb/7/11/14/en | Śrīmad Bhāgavatam 7.11.14
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 29.2 "Mahima Dharma, Bhima Bhoi and Biswanathbaba"
  30. ↑ Thanissaro Bhikkhu, Handful of Leaves Vol 1, 2nd edition, page 391.
  31. ↑ See for example Dhp XXVI, Brahmanavagga, or Majjhima Nikaya 3.24, or especially MN 98 for three of many examples.
  32. ↑ Sue Hamilton, Early Buddhism: A New Approach: The I of the Beholder. Routledge 2000, page 49.
  33. ↑ (Robinson, Johnson & Thanissaro 2005, p. 51)
  34. ↑ Sue Hamilton, Early Buddhism: A New Approach: The I of the Beholder. Routledge 2000, pages 47, 49.
  35. ↑ Translated by Piyadassi Thera: [6].
  36. ↑ Dhammapada XXVI, translated by Thanissaro Bhikkhu: [7].
  37. ↑ P.21 Jaina-rūpa-maṇḍana =: Jaina Iconography By Umakant Premanand Shah
  38. ↑ Bards/Bhatts in Adi Granth: Bhatt Mathura
  39. ↑ Acharya NPV (PVN Acharya's Phd thesis at Universite de Paris, Sorbonne) Senn M and Lederer E (1967). "Sur la presence et structure de mycolate d'arabinose dans les lipides lies de deux souches de Mycobacteries". Compte Rendu Acad Sci Hebd Acad Sci D. 264: 2173–2176. 
  40. ↑ Migliore D, Acharya NPV and Jolles P (1966). "Characterization of large quantities of glutamic acid in the walls of human virulent strains of mycobacteria.". Compte Rendu Acad Sci Hebd Acad Sci D. 263 (11): 846–8. PMID 4958543. 
  41. ↑ Acharya, PV and Goldman DS (1970). "Chemical composition of the cell wall of the H37Ra strain of Mycobacterium tuberculosis.". J Bacteriol 102 (3): 733–9. PMID 4988039. 
  42. ↑ Acharya, PVN; The Effect of Ionizing Radiation on the Formation of Age-Correlated Oligo Deoxyribo Nucleo Phospheryl Peptides in Mammalian Cells; 10th International Congress of Gerontology, Jerusalem. Abstract No. 1; January 1975. Work done while employed by Dept. of Pathology, University of Wisconsin, Madison.
  43. ↑ Acharya, PVN; Implicatons of The Action of Low Level Ionizing Radiation on the Inducement of Irreparable DNA Damage Leading to Mammalian Aging and Chemical Carcinogenesis.; 10th International Congress of Biochemistry, Hamburg, Germany. Abstract No. 01-1-079; July 1976. Work done while employed by Dept. of Pathology, University of Wisconsin, Madison.
  44. ↑ Acharya, PV Narasimh; Irreparable DNA-Damage by Industrial Pollutants in Pre-mature Aging, Chemical Carcinogenesis and Cardiac Hypertrophy: Experiments and Theory; 1st International Meeting of Heads of Clinical Biochemistry Laboratories, Jerusalem, Israel. April 1977. Work conducted at Industrial Safety Institute and Behavioral Cybernetics Laboratory, University of Wisconsin, Madison.
  45. ↑ Acharya, PV Narasimh; The Effects of Industrial Pollutants on DNA Mechanisms, 1977.
  46. ↑ Acharya, PV Narasimh; Environmental Carcinogens: A Critical Appraisal, 1988.
  47. ↑ Acharya PVN; The isolation and partial characterization of age-correlated oligo-deoxyribo-ribonucleotides with covalently linked aspartyl-glutamyl polypeptides. (June 1971). Johns Hopkins Med J Suppl, p254-260. PMID 5055816.

References

External links