Antimony

Not to be confused with Antinomy, a type of paradox.
tin ← antimony → tellurium
As
↑
Sb
↓
Bi
Appearance
silvery lustrous gray
General properties
Name, symbol, number antimony, Sb, 51
Pronunciation /ˈæntɪmɵnɪ/
AN-ti-mo-nee[note 1]
Element category metalloid
Group, period, block 15, 5, p
Standard atomic weight 121.760g·mol−1
Electron configuration [Kr] 4d10 5s2 5p3
Electrons per shell 2, 8, 18, 18, 5 (Image)
Physical properties
Phase solid
Density (near r.t.) 6.697 g·cm−3
Liquid density at m.p. 6.53 g·cm−3
Melting point 903.78 K, 630.63 °C, 1167.13 °F
Boiling point 1860 K, 1587 °C, 2889 °F
Heat of fusion 19.79 kJ·mol−1
Heat of vaporization 193.43 kJ·mol−1
Specific heat capacity (25 °C) 25.23 J·mol−1·K−1
Vapor pressure
P (Pa) 1 10 100 1 k 10 k 100 k
at T (K) 807 876 1011 1219 1491 1858
Atomic properties
Oxidation states 5, 3, -3
Electronegativity 2.05 (Pauling scale)
Ionization energies
(more)		 1st: 834 kJ·mol−1
2nd: 1594.9 kJ·mol−1
3rd: 2440 kJ·mol−1
Atomic radius 140 pm
Covalent radius 139±5 pm
Van der Waals radius 206 pm
Miscellanea
Crystal structure trigonal
Magnetic ordering diamagnetic[1]
Electrical resistivity (20 °C) 417 nΩ·m
Thermal conductivity (300 K) 24.4 W·m−1·K−1
Thermal expansion (25 °C) 11 µm·m−1·K−1
Speed of sound (thin rod) (20 °C) 3420 m/s
Young's modulus 55 GPa
Shear modulus 20 GPa
Bulk modulus 42 GPa
Mohs hardness 3.0
Brinell hardness 294 MPa
CAS registry number 7440-36-0
Most stable isotopes
Main article: Isotopes of antimony
iso NA half-life DM DE (MeV) DP
121Sb 57.36% 121Sb is stable with 70 neutrons
123Sb 42.64% 123Sb is stable with 72 neutrons
125Sb syn 2.7582 y β− 0.767 125Te

Antimony (pronounced /ˈæntɨmɵnɪ/ AN-ti-mo-nee);[note 2] Latin: stibium) is a chemical element with the symbol Sb and an atomic number of 51. It has two stable isotopes, one with seventy neutrons, the other with seventy-two. A silvery lustrous grey metalloid, it is found mainly as antimony sulfide, commonly known as stibnite.

Elemental antimony has applications in electronics and as an alloy with other metals it is used for small arms ammunition.

Contents

Etymology

The ancient words for antimony mostly have, as their chief meaning, kohl, the sulfide of antimony. Pliny the Elder, however, distinguishes between male and female forms of antimony; his male form is probably the sulfide, while the female form, which is superior, heavier, and less friable, is probably native metallic antimony.[2]

The Egyptians called antimony mśdmt; in hieroglyphics, the vowels are uncertain, but there is an Arabic tradition that the word is ميسديميت mesdemet.[3][4] The Greek word, στίμμι stimmi, is probably a loan word from Arabic or Egyptian sdm , and is used by the Attic tragic poets of the 5th century BC; later Greeks also used στἰβι stibi, as did Celsus and Pliny, writing in Latin, in the first century AD. Pliny also gives the names stimi [sic], larbaris, alabaster, and the "very common" platyophthalmos, "wide-eye" (from the effect of the cosmetic). Later Latin authors adapted the word to Latin as stibium. The Arabic word for the substance, as opposed to the cosmetic, can appear as تحميض، ثمود، وثمود، وثمود ithmid, athmoud, othmod, or uthmod. Littré suggests the first form, which is the earliest, derives from stimmida, (one) accusative for stimmi.[5]

The use of Sb as the standard chemical symbol for antimony is due to the 18th century chemical pioneer, Jöns Jakob Berzelius, who used this abbreviation of the name stibium. The medieval Latin form, from which the modern languages and late Byzantine Greek, take their names, is antimonium. The origin of this is uncertain; all suggestions have some difficulty either of form or interpretation. The popular etymology, from ἀντίμοναχός anti-monachos or French antimoine, still has adherents; this would mean "monk-killer", and is explained by many early alchemists being monks, and antimony being poisonous.[note 3] So does the hypothetical Greek word ἀντίμόνος antimonos, "against one", explained as "not found as metal", or "not found unalloyed".[6][7] Lippmann conjectured a Greek word, ανθήμόνιον anthemonion, which would mean "floret", and he cites several examples of related Greek words (but not that one) which describe chemical or biological efflorescence.[8]

The early uses of antimonium include the translations, in 1050-1100, by Constantine the African of Arabic medical treatises.[9] Several authorities believe that antimonium is a scribal corruption of some Arabic form; Meyerhof derives it from ithmid;[10] other possibilities include Athimar, the Arabic name of the metal, and a hypothetical *as-stimmi, derived from or parallel to the Greek.[11]

History

An unshaded circle surmounted by a cross.
One of the alchemical symbols for antimony

Antimony's sulfide compound, antimony(III) sulfide, Sb2S3 was recognized in antiquity, at least as early as 3000 BC.

An artifact made of antimony dating to about 3000 BC was found at Tello, Chaldea (part of present-day Iraq), and a copper object plated with antimony dating between 2500 BC and 2200 BC has been found in Egypt.[7] There is some uncertainty as to the description of the artifact from Tello. Although it is sometimes reported to be a vase, a recent detailed discussion reports it to be rather a fragment of indeterminate purpose.[12] The first European description of a procedure for isolating antimony is in the book De la pirotechnia of 1540 by Vannoccio Biringuccio, written in Italian. This book precedes the more famous 1556 book in Latin by Agricola, De re metallica, even though Agricola has been often incorrectly credited with the discovery of metallic antimony. A text describing the preparation of metallic antimony that was published in Germany in 1604 purported to date from the early fifteenth century, and if authentic it would predate Biringuccio. The book, written in Latin, was called "Currus Triumphalis Antimonii" (The Triumphal Chariot of Antimony), and its putative author was a certain Benedictine monk, writing under the name Basilius Valentinus. Already in 1710 Wilhelm Gottlob Freiherr von Leibniz, after careful inquiry, concluded that the work was spurious, that there was no monk named Basilius Valentinus, and the book's author was its ostensible editor, Johann Thölde (ca. 1565-ca. 1624). There is now agreement among professional historians that the Currus Triumphalis... was written after the middle of the sixteenth century and that Thölde was likely its author.[13][14] An English translation of the "Currus Triumphalis" appeared in English in 1660, under the title The Triumphant Chariot of Antimony. The work remains of great interest, chiefly because it documents how followers of the renegade German physician, Philippus Theophrastus Paracelsus von Hohenheim (of whom Thölde was one), came to associate the practice of alchemy with the preparation of chemical medicines.

According to the traditional history of Middle Eastern alchemy, pure antimony was well known to Jābir ibn Hayyān, sometimes called "the Father of Chemistry", in the 8th century. Here there is still an open controversy: Marcellin Berthelot, who translated a number of Jābir's books, stated that antimony is never mentioned in them, but other authors[15] claim that Berthelot translated only some of the less important books, while the more interesting ones (some of which might describe antimony) are not yet translated, and their content is completely unknown.

The first natural occurrence of pure antimony ('native antimony') in the Earth's crust was described by the Swedish scientist and local mine district engineer Anton von Swab in 1783. The type-sample was collected from the Sala Silvermine in the Bergslagen mining district of Sala, Västmanland, Sweden.[16]

Characteristics

Physical properties

A clear vial containing small chunks of a slightly lustrous black solid, labeled "Sb".
A vial containing a black allotrope of antimony
An irregular piece of silvery stone with spots of variation in lustre and shade.
Native massive antimony with oxidation products

There are four known allotropes of antimony: a stable metallic form, and three meta-stable forms which are explosive, black and yellow. Each has its own distinct physical properties, the most common of which is metallic antimony, a brittle, silver-white shiny metal. When molten antimony is slowly cooled to metallic antimony, it forms with an hexagonal crystal structure, isomorphic with that of the grey form of arsenic.

The explosive form of antimony is formed from the electrolysis of antimony(III) trichloride, under specific temperatures and concentration. In a bath of hydrochloric with an antimony anode and platinum foil cathode, explosive antimony is deposited on the latter. When scratched with a sharp implement, an exothermic reaction occurs and white fumes given off as metallic antimony is formed; alternatively, when rubbed with a pestle in a mortar, an strong detonation occurs. Black antimony is formed when gaseous metallic antimony is rapidly cooled. It oxidies in air and is sometimes spontaneously combustible. At 100 °C, it gradually transforms into the stable form. Finally, the yellow allotrope of antimony is the most unstable. While it cannot be produced as the black allotrope by rapid cooling, it can only be formed by introducing oxygen into antimony hydride at -90 °C. Above this temperature and in ordinary light, it transforms into the stabler black allotrope.[17]

Chemistry

Antimony trioxide (Sb4O6) is formed when antimony is burnt in an excess of air.[18] In the gas phase, this compound exists as Sb4O6, a species that is retained when cooled to its solid, cubic form. However, in the rhombic form, the molecules polymerise to form chains of [Sb2O3]x.[19]Antimony pentoxide, (Sb4O10) can only be formed by oxidation by concentrated nitric acid.[20] Antimony also forms a mixed-valence oxide, antimony tetroxide (Sb2O4), where it is found in both the +3 and +5 oxidation states.[20] Unlike phosphorus and arsenic, these various oxides are amphoteric and do not form well-defined oxoacids and react with acids to form antimony salts. Antimony trioxide dissolves in concentrated acid to form antimony oxo- (antimonyl) compounds such as SbOCl and (SbO)2SO4.[19]:764 The hypothetical antimonous acid Sb(OH)3 only exists as its salts,[19]:763 such as sodium antimonite ([Na3SbO3]4), formed by fusing sodium oxide and Sb4O6. Transition metal antimonites are best described as mixed metal oxides.[21]:122 Antimonic acid exists only as the hydrate HSb(OH)6, forming salts containing the antimonate anion Sb(OH)−6. Dehydrating metal salts containing this anion yields mixed oxides.[21]:143

Many antimony ores are sulfides, including stibnite (Sb2S3), pyrargyrite (Ag3SbS3), zinkenite, jamesonite, and boulangerite.[19]:757 Antimony pentasulfide is known, but is non-stoichiometric and contains only antimony in the +3 oxidation state.[22] Several complex anions of antimony and sulfur are known, such as [Sb6S10]2− and [Sb8S13]2−.[23]

Antimony forms two series of halides: SbX3 and SbX5, where X is one of the halogens. The trihalides SbF3, SbCl3, SbBr3, and SbI3 are all molecular compounds having trigonal pyramidal molecular geometry. The trifluoride SbF3 is prepared by the reaction of Sb2O3 with HF:[19]:761-762

Sb2O3 + HF → 2 SbF3 + 3 H2O

It is a strong Lewis acid that readily accepts fluoride ions to form the complex anions SbF−4 and SbF2−5. Molten SbF3 is a weak electrical conductor.

The trichloride SbCl3 is prepared by dissolving Sb2S3 in hydrochloric acid:

Sb2S3 + HCl → 2 SbCl3 + 3 H2S

The pentahalides SbF5 and SbCl5 have trigonal bipyramidal molecular geometry in the gas phase, but in the liquid phase, SbF5 is polymeric, whereas SbCl5 is monomeric.[19]:761 SbF5 is a powerful Lewis acid used to make the superacid fluoroantimonic acid (HSbF6), and is an important solvent used in the study of noble gas compounds.

Antimonides

Antimony forms antimonides with metals, such as indium antimonide (InSb), and silver antimonide (Ag3Sb).[19]:760 Treating antimonides with acid produces the unstable toxic gas stibine, SbH3:[24]

Sb3− + 3 H+ → SbH3

Stibine may also be produced by reacting Sb3+ salts with sources of the hydride ion H−. Antimony does not react with hydrogen directly to form stibine.[25]

Occurrence and Production

Antimony output in 2005
World production trend of antimony

The abundance of antimony in the Earth's crust is estimated at 0.2 to 0.5 parts per million, comparable to thallium at 0.5 parts per million and silver at 0.07 ppm.[26]

Even though this element is not abundant, it is found in over 100 mineral species. Antimony is sometimes found native, but more frequently it is found in the sulfide stibnite (Sb2S3) which is the predominant ore mineral. Commercial forms of antimony are generally ingots, broken pieces, granules, and cast cake. Other forms are powder, shot, and single crystals.

In 2005, China was the top producer of antimony with about 84% world share followed at a distance by South Africa, Bolivia and Tajikistan, reports the British Geological Survey. The mine with the largest deposits in China is Xikuangshan mine in Hunan Province with a estimated deposit of 2.1 million metric tons.[27]

Antimony is isolated from its ore by a reduction with scrap iron:

Sb2S3 + 3Fe → 2Sb + 3FeS.

Isolating antimony from its oxide, is performed by a charcoal reduction:

2Sb2O3 + 3C → 4Sb + 3CO2[28]

Country Tonnes  % of total
 People's Republic of China 126,000 84.0
 South Africa 6,000 4.0
 Bolivia 5,225 3.5
 Tajikistan 4,073 2.7
 Russia 3,000 2.0
Top 5 144,298 96.2
Total world 150,000 100.0

Chiffres de 2003, métal contenue dans les minerais et concentrés, source: L'état du monde 2005 (French)

Applications

Elemental antimony and alloys

Elemental antimony is increasingly being used in the semiconductor industry as a dopant for ultra-high conductivity n-type silicon wafers[29] in the production of diodes, infrared detectors, and Hall-effect devices. It is also used as an alloy, to increase lead's hardness and mechanical strength, as in lead-acid batteries, which is the most common use of antimony.[30] It is used in antifriction alloys, such as Babbit metal.[31]. It is used as an alloy in small arms ammunition, buckshot, tracer ammunition, cable sheathing, type metal (e.g. for linotype printing machines[32]), solder – some "lead-free" solders contain 5% Sb[33], in pewter[34], and in hardening alloys with low tin content in the manufacturing of organ pipes.

In the 1950s, tiny beads of a lead-antimony alloy were used to dope the emitters and collectors of NPN alloy junction transistors with antimony.[35]

A coin made of antimony was issued in the Keichow Province of China in 1931. The coins were not popular, being too soft and they wore quickly when in circulation. After the first issue no others were produced.[36]

Elemental antimony as an antimony pill was once used as a medicine. It could be reused by others after ingestion.

Compounds of antimony

Medical

Treatments principally containing are known as antimonials and are used as emetics.

Antimony compounds are used as antiprotozoan drugs. Antimony potassium tartrate, or tartar emetic, has been used in the past as an anti-schistosomal drug, later replaced by praziquantel.

Antimony and its compounds are used in several veterinary preparations like anthiomaline or lithium antimony thiomalate, which is used as a skin conditioner in ruminants.

Antimony has a nourishing or conditioning effect on keratinized tissues, at least in animals. Antimony-based drugs, such as meglumine antimoniate, are also considered the drugs of choice for treatment of leishmaniasis in domestic animals. Unfortunately, as well as having low therapeutic indices, the drugs are poor at penetrating the bone marrow, where some of the Leishmania amastigotes reside, and so cure of the disease – especially the visceral form – is very difficult.

Other uses

In the heads of some safety matches [37] in nuclear reactors together with beryllium in startup neutron sources; in the form of antimony oxides, antimony sulfides, and antimony trichloride are used in the making of flame-proofing compounds, ceramic enamels, glass, paints, and pottery. Antimony trioxide is the most important of the antimony compounds and is primarily used in flame-retardant formulations. These flame-retardant applications include such markets as children's clothing, toys, aircraft and automobile seat covers. It is also used in the fiberglass composites industry as an additive to polyester resins for such items as light aircraft engine covers. The resin will burn while a flame is held to it but will extinguish itself as soon as the flame is removed.

Precautions

Antimony and many of its compounds are toxic, and the effects of antimony poisoning are very similar to arsenic poisoning. Inhalation of antimony dust is harmful and in certain cases may be fatal; in small doses, antimony causes headaches, dizziness, and depression. Larger doses such as prolonged skin contact may cause dermatitis; otherwise it can damage the kidneys and the liver, causing violent and frequent vomiting, and will lead to death in a few days.

Antimony is incompatible with strong oxidizing agents, strong acids, halogen acids, chlorine, or fluorine. Keep away from heat.[38]

Antimony leaches from polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottles into liquids[39]. While levels observed for bottled water are below drinking water guidelines,[40][41] fruit juice concentrates (for which no guidelines are established) produced in the UK were found to contain up to 44.7 µg/L of antimony, well above the EU limits for tap water of 5 µg/L.[42][43] The guidelines are:

See also


Notes

  1. ↑ In the UK, the variable vowel /ɵ/ is usually pronounced as a schwa [ə]; in the US, it is generally a full [oʊ].
  2. ↑ In the UK, the variable vowel /ɵ/ is usually pronounced as a schwa [ə]; in the US, it is generally a full [oʊ].
  3. ↑ The use of a symbol resembling an upside down "female" symbol for antimony could also hint at a satirical pun in this origin

References

  1. ↑ Magnetic susceptibility of the elements and inorganic compounds, in Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 81st edition, CRC press.
  2. ↑ Pliny, Natural history, 33.33; W.H.S. Jones, the Loeb Classical Library translator, supplies a note suggesting the identifications.
  3. ↑ Albright, W. F. (1918). "Notes on Egypto-Semitic Etymology. II". The American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures 34 (4): 230. http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=1062-0516%28191807%2934%3A4%3C215%3ANOEEI%3E2.0.CO%3B2-J. 
  4. ↑ Sarton, George (1935). "Review of Al-morchid fi'l-kohhl, ou Le guide d'oculistique, translated by Max Meyerhof" (in French). Isis 22 (2): 541. http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0021-1753%28193502%2922%3A2%3C539%3A%28FOLGD%3E2.0.CO%3B2-L.  quotes Meyerhof, the translator of the book he is reviewing.
  5. ↑ LSJ, s.v., vocalisation, spelling, and declension vary; Endlich, p.28; Celsus, 6.6.6 ff; Pliny Natural History 33.33; Lewis and Short: Latin Dictionary. OED, s. "antimony".
  6. ↑ Fernando, Diana (1998). Alchemy : an illustrated A to Z. Blandford.  Fernando even derives it from the story of how "Basil Valentine" and his fellow monastic alchemists poisoned themselves by working with antimony; antimonium is found two centuries before his time. "Popular etymology" from OED; as for antimonos, the pure negative would be more naturally expressed by a- "not".
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, 5th ed. 2004. Entry for antimony.
  8. ↑ Lippman, p.643-5
  9. ↑ Lippman, p.642, writing in 1919, says "zuerst".
  10. ↑ Meyerhof as quoted in Sarton, asserts that ithmid or athmoud became corrupted in the medieval "traductions barbaro-latines".; the OED asserts that some Arabic form is the origin, and if ithmid is the root, posits athimodium, atimodium, atimonium, as intermediate forms.
  11. ↑ Endlich, p.28; one of the advantages of as-stimmi would be that it has a whole syllable in common with antimonium.
  12. ↑ The fragment was presented in a lecture in 1892. One contemporary commented, "we only know of antimony at the present day as a highly brittle and crystalline metal, which could hardly be fashioned into a useful vase, and therefore this remarkable 'find' must represent the lost art of rendering antimony malleable." Moorey, P. R. S. (1994). Ancient Mesopotamian Materials and Industries: the Archaeological Evidence. New York: Clarendon Press. p. 241. ISBN 9781575060422. http://books.google.com/?id=P_Ixuott4doC&pg=PA241. 
  13. ↑ Priesner, Claus and Figala, Karin, ed (1998) (in German). Alchemie. Lexikon einer hermetischen Wissenschaft. München: C.H. Beck. 
  14. ↑ s.v. "Basilius Valentinus." Harold Jantz was perhaps the only modern scholar to deny Thölde's authorship, but he too agrees that the work dates from after 1550: see his catalogue of German Baroque literature.
  15. ↑ Dampier, William Cecil (1961). A history of science and its relations with philosophy & religion.. London: Cambridge U.P.. p. 73. ISBN 9780521093668. http://books.google.com/?id=6kM4AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA73. 
  16. ↑ "Native antimony". Mindat.org. http://www.mindat.org/min-262.html. 
  17. ↑ Wang, Chung Wu (1919). "The Chemistry of Antimony". Antimony: Its History, Chemistry, Minerology, Geology, Metallurgy, Uses, Preparation, Analysis, Production and Valuation with Complete Bibliographies. London, United Kingdom: Charles Geiffin and Co. Ltd. pp. 6–33. http://library.sciencemadness.org/library/books/antimony.pdf. 
  18. ↑ Daniel L. Reger; Scott R. Goode; David W. Ball (2009). Chemistry: Principles and Practice (3rd ed.). Cengage Learning. p. 883. 
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 19.2 19.3 19.4 19.5 19.6 Wiberg, Egon; Wiberg, Nils and Holleman, Arnold Frederick (2001). Inorganic chemistry. Academic Press. 
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 James E. House (2008). Inorganic chemistry. Academic Press. p. 502. 
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 S. M. Godfrey; C. A. McAuliffe; A. G. Mackie; R. G. Pritchard (1998). Nicholas C. Norman. ed. Chemistry of arsenic, antimony, and bismuth. Springer. ISBN 075140389X. 
  22. ↑ Long, G (1969). "The oxidation number of antimony in antimony pentasulfide". Inorganic and Nuclear Chemistry Letters 5: 21. doi:(69)80231-X (inactive 2010-09-01). 
  23. ↑ Lees, R; Powell, A; Chippindale, A (2007). "The synthesis and characterisation of four new antimony sulphides incorporating transition-metal complexes". Journal of Physics and Chemistry of Solids 68: 1215. doi:10.1016/j.jpcs.2006.12.010. 
  24. ↑ Louis Kahlenberg (2008). Outlines of Chemistry – A Textbook for College Students. READ BOOKS. pp. 324–325. ISBN 140976995X. 
  25. ↑ Amit Arora (2005). Text Book Of Inorganic Chemistry. Discovery Publishing House. p. 530. ISBN 818356013X. 
  26. ↑ "Antimony Statistics and Information". United States Geological Survey. http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/antimony/. 
  27. ↑ Peng, J (2003). "Samarium–neodymium isotope systematics of hydrothermal calcites from the Xikuangshan antimony deposit (Hunan, China): the potential of calcite as a geochronometer". Chemical Geology 200: 129. doi:10.1016/S0009-2541(03)00187-6. 
  28. ↑ "WebElements: Antimony: Essential Information". Webelements.com. http://www.webelements.com/antimony/. Retrieved 2010-07-09. 
  29. ↑ O'Mara, William C.; Herring, Robert B.; Hunt, Lee Philip (1990). Handbook of semiconductor silicon technology. William Andrew. p. 473. ISBN 9780815512370. http://books.google.com/?id=COcVgAtqeKkC&pg=PA473. 
  30. ↑ Kiehne, Heinz Albert (2003). "Types of Alloys". Battery technology handbook. CRC Press. pp. 60–61. ISBN 9780824742492. http://books.google.com/?id=1HSsx9fPAKkC&pg=PA60. 
  31. ↑ Williams, Robert S. (2007). Principles of Metallography. Read books. pp. 46–47. ISBN 9781406746716. http://books.google.com/?id=KR82QRlAgUwC&pg=PA46. 
  32. ↑ Holmyard, E. J. (2008). Inorganic Chemistry – A Textbooks for Colleges and Schools. pp. 399–400. ISBN 9781443722537. http://books.google.com/?id=IYZezyEvZ78C&pg=PA399. 
  33. ↑ Ipser, H.; Flandorfer, H.; Luef, Ch.; Schmetterer, C.; Saeed, U. (2007). "Thermodynamics and phase diagrams of lead-free solder materials". Journal of Materials Science: Materials in Electronics 18 (1–3): 3–17. doi:10.1007/s10854-006-9009-3. 
  34. ↑ Hull, Charles (1992). Pewter. Osprey Publishing. pp. 1–5. ISBN 9780747801528. http://books.google.com/?id=3_zyycVRw18C. 
  35. ↑ Maiti,, C. K. (2008). Selected Works of Professor Herbert Kroemer. World Scientific, 2008. p. 101. ISBN 9789812709011. http://books.google.com/?id=_7fOlKRDcCkC&pg=PA101. 
  36. ↑ "Metals Used in Coins and Medals". ukcoinpics.co.uk. http://www.ukcoinpics.co.uk/metal.html. 
  37. ↑ National Research Council (1970). Trends in usage of antimony: report. National Academies. p. 50. http://books.google.com/?id=TyQrAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA50. 
  38. ↑ MSDS, Baker
  39. ↑ "Antimony leaching from polyethylene terephthalate (PET) plastic used for bottled drinking water:". National Center for Biotechnology Information, U.S. National Library of Medicine. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17707454. 
  40. ↑ 40.0 40.1 Shotyk, W.; Krachler, M.; Chen, B. (2006). "Contamination of Canadian and European bottled waters with antimony from PET containers.". Journal of environmental monitoring : JEM 8 (2): 288–92. doi:10.1039/b517844b. 
  41. ↑ "London Free Press:". Lfpress.com. http://www.lfpress.com/cgi-bin/publish.cgi?p=120232&x. 
  42. ↑ Hansen, Claus; Tsirigotaki, Alexandra; Bak, Søren Alex; Pergantis, Spiros A.; Stürup, Stefan; Gammelgaard, Bente; Hansen, Helle Rüsz (17 February 2010). "Elevated antimony concentrations in commercial juices". Journal of Environmental Monitoring 12: 822. doi:10.1039/b926551a. http://www.rsc.org/Publishing/Journals/EM/article.asp?doi=b926551a. 
  43. ↑ Borland, Sophie (1. March 2010). "Fruit juice cancer warning as scientists find harmful chemical in 16 drinks". Daily Mail. http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-1254534/Fruit-juice-cancer-warning-scientists-harmful-chemical-16-drinks.html. 
  44. ↑ Wakayama, Hiroshi, "Revision of Drinking Water Standards in Japan", Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare (Japan), 2003; Table 2, p. 84

Bibliography

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