W. E. B. Du Bois

W. E. B. Du Bois
WEB DuBois 1918.jpg
W. E. B. Du Bois, in 1918
Born February 23, 1868(1868-02-23)
Great Barrington, Massachusetts, USA
Died August 27, 1963 (aged 95)
Accra, Ghana
Occupation Academic, Scholar, Activist
Spouse(s) Shirley Graham Du Bois
Influences
Influenced

William Edward Burghardt Du Bois (pronounced /duːˈbɔɪz/ or "due-BOYS")[1] (February 23, 1868 – August 27, 1963) was an American civil rights activist, public intellectual, Pan-Africanist, professor of sociology, historian, writer, and editor. At the age of 95, he became a naturalized citizen of Ghana in 1963.[2]

David Levering Lewis, a biographer, wrote, "In the course of his long, turbulent career, W. E. B. Du Bois attempted virtually every possible solution to the problem of twentieth-century racism— scholarship, propaganda, integration, national self-determination, human rights, cultural and economic separatism, politics, international communism, expatriation, third world solidarity."[3]

Contents

Early life

Family history

William Edward Burghardt Du Bois was born on February 23, 1868 in Great Barrington, at the south-western edge of Massachusetts, to Alfred Du Bois and Mary Silvina Burghardt Du Bois. Du Bois was born and grew up in the overwhelmingly white town of Barrington, Massachusetts. Mary Silvina Burghardt's family was part of the very small, free black population of Great Barrington and had long owned land in the state. They descended from Dutch and African ancestors, including Tom, a West African-born man who served as a private for Captain John Spoor's company in 1780, a service which likely won him his freedom. According to Du Bois, several of his maternal ancestors were notably involved in regional history.

Alfred Du Bois, from Haiti, was of French Huguenot and African descent. His grandfather was Dr. James Du Bois of Poughkeepsie, New York. Dr. Du Bois' family was rewarded extensive lands in the Bahamas for its support of King George III during the American Revolution. On Long Cay, Bahamas, James Du Bois sired several children with slave mistresses. When he returned to New York in 1812, James brought with him John and Alexander, two of his mixed-race sons, to be educated in Connecticut. After James Du Bois died, his mixed-race sons were disowned by his family and forced to give up schooling for work. Alexander became a merchant in New Haven and married Sarah Marsh Lewis, with whom he had several children. In the 1830s Alexander went to Haiti to try to salvage his inheritance. His son Alfred was born there about 1833. Alexander returned to New Haven without the boy and his mother.

It is unknown how Alfred Du Bois and Mary Silvina Burghardt met, but they married on February 5, 1867 in Housatonic, Massachusetts. Alfred deserted Mary by the time their son William was two. The boy Du Bois was very close to his mother. When Du Bois was young, Mary suffered a stroke which left her unable to work. The two of them moved frequently, surviving on money from family members and Du Bois' after-school jobs. Du Bois wanted to help his mother and believed he could improve their lives through education. Some of the neighborhood whites noticed him, and one rented Du Bois and his mother a house in Great Barrington.

While living there, Du Bois performed chores and worked odd jobs. Du Bois did not feel separate because of his skin color while he was in school. In fact, the only times he felt out-of-place were when out-of-towners visited Great Barrington. One such incident occurred when a white girl who was new in school refused to take one of his "calling cards" during a game; the girl told him she would not accept it because he was black. Du Bois then realized that there would always be a barrier between some whites and non-whites.[4]

Young Du Bois may have been an outsider because of being the poor mixed-race son of a single mother, and extremely intellectual for his age; however, he was very comfortable academically. Many teachers recognized his intelligence and encouraged him to further his education with classical academic courses while in high school. His academic success led him to believe that he could use his knowledge to empower African Americans.[5]

University education

In 1888 Du Bois earned a degree from Fisk University, a historically black college in Nashville, Tennessee. During the summer following graduation from Fisk, Du Bois managed the Fisk Glee Club. The club was employed at a grand luxury summer resort on Lake Minnetonka in suburban Minneapolis, Minnesota. The resort was a favorite spot for vacationing wealthy American Southerners and European royalty. In addition to providing entertainment, Du Bois and the other club members worked as waiters and kitchen help at the hotel.[6] Observing the drinking, crude behavior and sexual promiscuity of rich white guests of the hotel left a deep impression on the young Du Bois.[7]

Du Bois entered Harvard College in the fall of 1888, having received a $250 scholarship. He earned a bachelor's degree cum laude from Harvard in 1890. In 1892, he received a stipend to attend the University of Berlin for graduate work. While a student in Berlin, he traveled extensively throughout Europe. He came of age intellectually in the German capital, while studying with some of that nation's most prominent social scientists, such as Gustav von Schmoller.

In 1895, Du Bois became the first African American to earn a Ph.D. from Harvard University. After teaching at Wilberforce University in Ohio, he worked at the University of Pennsylvania. He taught while undertaking field research for his study The Philadelphia Negro. Next he moved to Georgia, where he established the department of sociology at Atlanta University (now Clark Atlanta University).

Writing

Title page of the second edition of The Souls of Black Folk

Du Bois wrote many books, including three major autobiographies. Among his most significant works are The Philadelphia Negro (1899), The Souls of Black Folk (1903), John Brown (1909), Black Reconstruction (1935), and Black Folk, Then and Now (1939). His book The Negro (1915) influenced the work of several pioneer Africanist scholars, such as Drusilla Dunjee Houston[8] and William Leo Hansberry.[9][10]

In the New York Times review of The Souls of Black Folk, the anonymous book reviewer wrote, "For it is the Jim Crow car, and the fact that he may not smoke a cigar and drink a cup of tea with the white man in the South, that most galls William E. Burghardt Du Bois of the Atlanta College for Negroes."[11] The review's conclusion reflected some contemporary thinking:

...it is the thought of a negro of Northern education who has lived long among his brethren of the South yet who can not fully feel the meaning of some things which these brethren know by instinct — and which the Southern-bred white knows by a similar instinct: certain things which are by both accepted as facts — not theories — fundamental attitudes of race to race which are the product of conditions extending over centuries, as are the somewhat parallel attitudes of the gentry to the peasantry in other countries.[11]

While prominent white scholars denied African-American cultural, political and social relevance to American history and civic life, in his epic work Black Reconstruction, Du Bois documented how black people were central figures in the American Civil War and Reconstruction, and also showed how they made alliances with white politicians. He provided evidence to disprove the Dunning School theories of Reconstruction, showing the coalition governments established public education in the South, as well as many needed social service programs. He demonstrated the ways Black emancipation— the crux of Reconstruction — promoted a radical restructuring of United States society, as well as how and why the country failed to continue support for civil rights for blacks in the aftermath of Reconstruction.[12] This theme was taken up later and expanded by Eric Foner and Leon F. Litwack, the two leading late 20th century scholars of the Reconstruction era.

In 1940, at Atlanta University, Du Bois founded Phylon magazine. In 1946, he wrote The World and Africa: An Inquiry Into the Part that Africa has Played in World History. In 1945, he helped organize the historic Fifth Pan-African Conference in Manchester, Great Britain.[13]

In total, Du Bois wrote 22 books, including five novels. He helped establish four academic journals.

Criminology

Du Bois began writing about the sociology of crime in 1897, shortly after receiving his Ph.D. from Harvard (Zuckerman, 2004, p. 2). His first work involving crime, A Program of Social Reform, was shortly followed by a second, The Study of the Negro Problems (Du Bois, 1897; Du Bois, 1898). The first work that involved in-depth criminological study and theorizing was The Philadelphia Negro, in which a large section of the sociological study was devoted to analysis of the black criminal population in Philadelphia (Du Bois, 1899).

Du Bois (1899) set forth three significant parts to his criminology theory. The first was that Negro crime was caused by the strain of the 'social revolution' experienced by black Americans as they began to adapt to their newfound freedom and position in the nation. This theory was similar to Durkheim's (1893) Anomie theory, but it applied specifically to the newly freed Negro. Du Bois (1900a, p. 3) credited Emancipation with causing the boom in crime in the black population. He explained, "[T]he appearance of crime among the southern Negroes is a symptom of wrong social conditions- of a stress of life greater than a large part of the community can bear." (Du Bois, 1901b, p. 745). He distinguished between the strains on southern Negroes and those on northern Negroes because the problems of city life in the North were different from those of the Southern rural sharecroppers.

Secondly, Du Bois' (1904a) believed that black crime declined as the African-American population moved towards a more equal status with whites. This idea, referred to later as "stratification", was developed in a similar manner later in the 20th century by Merton in his (1968) structure-strain theory of deviance. In The Philadelphia Negro and later statistical studies, Du Bois found direct correlations between low levels of employment and education, and high levels of criminal activity.

Thirdly, Du Bois held that the Talented Tenth or the "exceptional men" of the black race would be the ones to lead the race and save it from its criminal problems (Du Bois, 1903, p. 33). Du Bois saw the evolution of a class system within black American society as necessary to carry out the improvements necessary to reduce crime.(Du Bois, 1903). He set forth a number of solutions to crime that the Talented Tenth had to enact. (Du Bois, 1903, p. 2).

He was perhaps the first criminologist to combine historical fact with social change, and used the combination to postulate his theories. He credited the crime increase after the Civil War to the "increased complexity of life", competition for jobs in industry (especially with the recent Irish immigrants), and the mass exodus of blacks from the farmland and immigration to cities (Du Bois, 1899). Du Bois (1899, p. 64) states in The Philadelphia Negro:

"Naturally then, if men are suddenly transported from one environment to another, the result is lack of harmony with the new conditions; lack of harmony with the new physical surroundings leading to disease and death or modification of physique; lack of harmony with social surroundings leading to crime."

Civil rights activism

W. E. B. Du Bois in 1904

Du Bois was the most prominent intellectual leader and political activist on behalf of African Americans in the first half of the twentieth century. A contemporary of Booker T. Washington, he carried on a dialogue with the educator about segregation, political disfranchisement, and ways to improve African American life. He was labeled "The Father of Pan-Africanism."

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Along with Washington, Du Bois helped organize the "Negro exhibition" at the 1900 Exposition Universelle in Paris. It included Frances Benjamin Johnston's photos of Hampton Institute's black students.[14] The Negro exhibition focused on African Americans' positive contributions to American society.[14]

In 1905, Du Bois, along with Minnesota attorney Fredrick L. McGhee[15] and others, helped found the Niagara Movement with William Monroe Trotter. The Movement championed freedom of speech and criticism, the recognition of the highest and best human training as the monopoly of no caste or race, full male suffrage, a belief in the dignity of labor, and a united effort to realize such ideals under sound leadership.

The alliance between Du Bois and Trotter was, however, short-lived, as they had a dispute over whether or not white people should be included in the organization and in the struggle for civil rights. Believing that they should, in 1909 Du Bois with a group of like-minded supporters founded the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP).

In 1910, Du Bois left Atlanta University to work full-time as Publications Director at the NAACP. He also wrote columns published weekly in many newspapers, including the Hearst-owned San Francisco Chronicle as well as the African American Chicago Defender, the Pittsburgh Courier and the New York Amsterdam News. For 25 years, Du Bois worked as Editor-in-Chief of the NAACP publication, The Crisis, then subtitled A Record of the Darker Races. He commented freely and widely on current events and set the agenda for the fledgling NAACP. The journal's circulation soared from 1,000 in 1910 to more than 100,000 by 1920.[16]

W. E. B. Du Bois and Mary White Ovington, co-founders of NAACP

Du Bois published Harlem Renaissance writers Langston Hughes and Jean Toomer. He encouraged black fiction, poetry and dramas. As a journal of black thought, the Crisis was initially a monopoly, David Levering Lewis observed. In 1913, Du Bois wrote The Star of Ethiopia, a historical pageant, to promote African-American history and civil rights.

Du Bois thought blacks should seek higher education, preferably liberal arts. He also believed blacks should challenge and question whites on all grounds. Booker T. Washington believed assimilating and fitting into the "American" culture was the best way for Blacks to move up in society. While Washington stated that he did not receive any racist insults until his later years, Du Bois said Blacks have a "Double-Conscious" mind in which they have to know when to act "White" and when to act "Black". Booker T. Washington believed that teaching was a duty, but Du Bois believed it was a calling.

Du Bois became increasingly estranged from Walter Francis White, the executive secretary of the NAACP. He began to question the organization's opposition to all racial segregation. Du Bois thought that this policy undermined those black institutions that did exist. He believed that such institutions should be defended and improved rather than attacked as inferior. By the 1930s, the NAACP had become more institutional and Du Bois increasingly radical, sometimes at odds with leaders such as Walter White and Roy Wilkins. In 1934, Du Bois left the magazine to return to teaching at Atlanta University, after writing two essays published in the Crisis suggesting that black separatism could be a useful economic strategy.

During the 1920s, Du Bois engaged in a bitter feud with Marcus Garvey. They disagreed over whether African Americans could be assimilated as equals into American society (the view held by Du Bois). Their dispute was bitter, descending to personal attacks, sometimes based on ancestry. Du Bois wrote, "Garvey is, without doubt, the most dangerous enemy of the Negro race in America and in the world. He is either a lunatic or a traitor."[17] Garvey described Du Bois as "purely and simply a white man's nigger" and "a little Dutch, a little French, a little Negro ... a mulatto ... a monstrosity."[18]

Du Bois became an early member of Alpha Phi Alpha, the first intercollegiate Greek-letter fraternity established by African Americans, and one that had a civil rights focus.

American Historical Association

In 1909, W. E. B. Du Bois addressed the American Historical Association (AHA) at its annual conference, the first African American to do so. According to David Levering Lewis, "His would be the first and last appearance of an African American on the program until 1940."[19]

In a review of the second volume of Lewis' biography of Du Bois, Michael R. Winston observed that, in understanding American history, one must question "how black Americans developed the psychological stamina and collective social capacity to cope with the sophisticated system of racial domination that white Americans had anchored deeply in law and custom."[20] Winston continued, "Although any reasonable answer is extraordinarily complex, no adequate one can ignore the man (Du Bois) whose genius was for 70 years at the intellectual epicenter of the struggle to destroy white supremacy as public policy and social fact in the United States."[20]

Imperial Japan and Nazi Germany

Du Bois became impressed by the growing strength of Imperial Japan following the Japanese victory in the Russo-Japanese War. Du Bois saw the victory of Japan over Tsarist Russia as an example of "colored pride". Hikida Yasuichi ran Japan's "Negro Propaganda Operations." After traveling to the United States to speak with students at Howard University, Scripps College and Tuskegee University, Yasuichi influenced Du Bois' opinions of Imperial Japan. In 1936, Yasuichi and the Japanese Ambassador arranged a trip to Japan for Du Bois and a small group of academics.[21] The trip was to include stops in Japan, China, and the Soviet Union. The Soviet stop was canceled after Karl Radek, Du Bois' diplomatic contact, was swept up in Stalin's purges. While on the Chinese leg of the trip, Du Bois commented that the source of Chinese-Japanese enmity was China's "submission to white aggression and Japan's resistance". He asked the Chinese people to welcome the Japanese as liberators. Du Bois joined a large group of African-American academics who cited the Mukden Incident to justify Japan's occupation and annexation of the formerly European-held southern Manchuria.

During 1936 Du Bois also visited Nazi Germany. He later noted that he had received more respect from German academics than he had from white American colleagues. On his return to the United States, he voiced his ambivalence about the Nazi regime. While admiring how the Nazis had improved the German economy, he was horrified by their treatment of the Jews, which he described as "an attack on civilization, comparable only to such horrors as the Spanish Inquisition and the African slave trade".[22]

On scientific racism and eugenics

Du Bois was an outspoken opponent of the scientific racism of his day.[23] Along with cultural anthropologist Franz Boas, Du Bois argued extensively against the then prevalent notion that African-Americans were biologically inferior to whites. Du Bois issued his critiques in the pages of Crisis magazine, and in head-to head debates with advocates of a biological basis for white superiority.[24][25][26][27][28]

Although fervently opposed to scientific justifications for racism, including opposition to the eugenics experiments at Cold Spring Harbor, Du Bois did appeal to some of the eugenic notions of his day with regards to his message of uplift for African-Americans, including an advocacy of the use of birth control to further the breeding of what he saw (following his notion of a "talented tenth") as the most gifted members of the African-American race. This notion has been described as elitist rather than racist.[29][30]

In 1904, Du Bois argued that "the Negro races are from every physical standpoint full and normally developed men [who] show absolutely no variation from the European type sufficient to base any theory of essential human difference upon."[31]

Writing in 1910, Du Bois challenged the eugenicist notions of superior races and deleterious effects of racial mixing and lent his support to intermarriage, while upholding the idea that gradations existed within all races: “I believe that there are human stocks with whom it is physically unwise to intermarry, but to think that these stocks are all colored or that there are no such white stocks is unscientific and false.”[32]

In 1932, Du Bois contributed an essay on birth control to Margaret Sanger’s Birth Control Review. In the article, he accepted the conventional eugenic wisdom that “the more intelligent class” exercised birth control, which meant that “the increase among Negroes, even more than the increase among whites, is from that part of the population least intelligent and fit, and least able to rear their children properly.” He intoned that African Americans “must learn that among human races and groups, as among vegetables, quality and not mere quantity really counts.”[33]

Later life

Du Bois in 1946, photo by Carl Van Vechten

Communist Party

Du Bois was one of a number of African-American leaders investigated by the FBI, which claimed in May 1942 that "his writing indicates him to be a socialist", and that he "has been called a Communist and at the same time criticized by the Communist Party."[34]

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Du Bois visited Communist China during the Great Leap Forward. Also, in the March 16, 1953 issue of The National Guardian, Du Bois wrote "Joseph Stalin was a great man; few other men of the 20th century approach his stature."[35]

Du Bois was chairman of the Peace Information Center at the start of the Korean War. He was among the signers of the Stockholm Peace Pledge, which opposed the use of nuclear weapons. In 1950, at the age of 82, he ran for the U.S. Senate on the American Labor Party ticket in New York and received 4 percent of the vote. Although he lost, Du Bois remained committed to the progressive labor cause. Du Bois was questioned before HUAC about his alleged communist sympathies. In 1958, he joined Trotskyists, ex-Communists and independent radicals in proposing the creation of a united left-wing coalition to challenge for seats in elections for the New York state senate and assembly.

He was indicted in the United States under the Foreign Agents Registration Act and acquitted for lack of evidence. In 1959, Du Bois received the Lenin Peace Prize. In 1961, at the age of 93, he joined the Communist Party USA, at a time past its peak of appeal to most people on the Left.

Death

Du Bois was invited to Ghana in 1961 by President Kwame Nkrumah to direct the Encyclopedia Africana, a government production, and a long-held dream of his. When, in 1963, he was refused a new U.S. passport, he and his wife, Shirley Graham Du Bois, became citizens of Ghana. Contrary to some opinions (including David Levering Lewis's Pulitzer Prize winning biography of Du Bois), he never renounced his US citizenship, even when denied a passport to travel to Ghana. Du Bois' health had declined in 1962, and on August 27, 1963, he died in Accra, Ghana at the age of ninety-five, one day before Martin Luther King, Jr.'s "I Have a Dream" speech.[2] At the March on Washington, Roy Wilkins informed the hundreds of thousands of marchers and called for a moment of silence.[36]

Pronunciation and spelling of Du Bois

Du Bois' name is sometimes misspelled "DuBois," "du Bois," or "duBois"; the correct spelling separates the two syllables and capitalizes each.[37]

Although the name is of French origin, Du Bois himself pronounced it [duːˈbɔɪz] instead of the French [dybwa].[1]

Works published

Du Bois wrote and published over 4,000 articles, essays and books over the course of the 95-year life. Most of these are out of print and hard to find even in their original publications. No edition of his complete works has yet been published. In 1977, Paul G. Partington published a bibliography of Du Bois' published works, titled W. E. B. Du Bois: A Bibliography of His Published Writings. (Whittier, CA: c.1977, 1979 (rev. ed.)) (privately published). ISBN 0960253815. A supplement was published in 1984, titled W. E. B. Du Bois: A Bibliography of His Published Writings—Supplement. (Whittier, CA: c. 1984). 20pages. The supplement represented Partington's research in the Du Bois' papers owned by the University of Massachusetts Amherst.

Books

Articles

Published as

Bibliography

Honors and Legacy

In 1958 Du Bois was awarded an honorary doctoral degree from the University of Prague. His honorary dissertation was entitled The Negro and Communism.[38]

In 1959 the USSR awarded him the International Lenin Peace Prize.

After his death in 1963, the Ghanaian government honored him with a state funeral.

In 1992, the United States Postal Service honored W. E. B. Du Bois with his portrait on a postage stamp.

On October 5, 1994, the main library at the University of Massachusetts - Amherst was named after him.

A dormitory was named after Du Bois at the University of Pennsylvania, where he taught while conducting field research for his sociological study "The Philadelphia Negro".

Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African-American Experience was inspired by and dedicated to W. E. B. Du Bois by its editors Kwame Anthony Appiah and Henry Louis Gates, Jr.

Du Bois lectures are held monthly at Humboldt-University Berlin.

See also

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 "Du Bois - How to Spell It, How to Say It". W. E. B. Du Bois Global Resource Collection. Berkshire Publishing Group. Retrieved on 2007-11-13. "My name is pronounced in the clear English fashion: Du with u as in Sue; Bois, as oi in voice. The accent is on the second syllable."
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 "W. E. B. Du Bois Dies in Ghana; Negro Leader and Author, 95", New York Times (August 28, 1963). Retrieved on 2007-07-21. "W. E. B. Du Bois, the American Negro philosopher and writer, who settled in Ghana a few years ago, died last night, the Government announced. He was 95 years old." 
  3. ↑ W. E. B. Du Bois: The Fight for Equality and the American Century 1919-1963
  4. ↑ The Souls of Black Folk, pg.2
  5. ↑ Moore, Jaqueline (2003). M. Booker T. Washington, W. E. B. Du Bois, and the Struggle for Racial Uplift. Wilmington: Scholarly Resources.
  6. ↑ A play about Du Bois' summer of 1888 in Minnesota was written and performed in 2002 in St. Paul, Minnesota, titled Summer in the Shadows, (2002) by Kim Hines. See http://www.illusiontheater.org/season/archives/index.asp?sid=145&id=36&p=8.
  7. ↑ James Neyland, W. E. B. Du Bois, p. 60 (Melrose Square Publishing Company, June 1993) ISBN-10: 0870675885
  8. ↑ Peggy Brooks-Bertram. "HOUSTON, DRUSILLA DUNJEE (1876-1941)". Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture. Oklahoma Historical Society via Electronic Publishing Center (at Oklahoma State University). Retrieved on 2008-05-18.
  9. ↑ Biographical Profile of William Leo Hansberry
  10. ↑ William Leo Hansberry
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 "The Negro Question: Essays and Sketches Touching Upon It by a Colored Writer", New York Times (April 25, 1903), p. BR7. 
  12. ↑ Untitled Document
  13. ↑ "Dr. William Edward Burghardt Du Bois", African American Literature Book Club, accessed 12 Nov 2008
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 Anne Maxell, "Montrer l'Autre: Franz Boas et les soeurs Gerhard", in Zoos humains. De la Vénus hottentote aux reality shows, Nicolas Bancel, Pascal Blanchard, Gilles Boëtsch, Eric Deroo, Sandrine Lemaire, edition La Découverte (2002), p.331-339, in part. p.338
  15. ↑ See Paul D. Nelson and David Levering Lewis, Fredrick L. McGhee: A Life on the Color Line, 1861-1912 (Minnesota Historical Society 2002).
  16. ↑ "A New and Changed NAACP Magazine"', 'The Baltimore Sun, June 8, 1997
  17. ↑ Dubois, "A Lunatic or a Traitor", The Crisis, Vol. 28 (May 1924), pp. 8-9.
  18. ↑ Colin Grant, Negro with a Hat: The Rise and Fall of Marcus Garvey and His Dream of Mother Africa, Oxford University Press, 2008.
  19. ↑ http://silverdialogues.fas.nyu.edu/docs/CP/301/leveringlewis.pdf
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 November 5, 2000, The Washington Post
  21. ↑ Gallicchio, Marc S.. The African American encounter with Japan and China : Black internationalism in Asia, 1895-1945. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. pp. p. 104. ISBN 9780807825594. OCLC 43334134. http://books.google.com/books?id=oh3Cn3YQ0UQC&pg=PA104&lpg=PA104&dq=hikida+%22du+bois%22+or+dubois&source=web&ots=sI7nbHF8m9&sig=3AMkrGOvbU5_qnH2U3GtQg7JkAk&hl=en#PPA104,M1. Retrieved on 2008-05-29. 
  22. ↑ Ishmael Reed, "Eminent Contrarian", Voice Literary Supplement, October-November 2000.
  23. ↑ Derryn E. Moten. Racial Integrity or 'Race Suicide': Virginia's Eugenic Movement, W. E. B. Du Bois, and the Work of Walter A. Plecker. Negro History Bulletin, April-September 1999.
  24. ↑ Matthew Pratt Guterl. The Color of Race in America, 1900-1940. 2001 Harvard University Press.
  25. ↑ Carl N. Degler. In Search of Human Nature: The Decline and Revival of Darwinism in American Social Thought. (New York: Oxford University), 1991.
  26. ↑ Carol M. Taylor W.E.B. DuBois's Challenge to Scientific Racism. Journal of Black Studies. Vol. 11, No. 4 (Jun., 1981):449-460.
  27. ↑ Laura Doyle. Bordering on the Body: The Racial Matrix of Modern Fiction and Culture. (New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1994), 10.
  28. ↑ Julia E. Liss. Diasporic Identities: The Science and Politics of Race in the Work of Franz Boas and W. E. B. Du Bois, 1894-1919. Cultural Anthropology. Vol. 13 Issue 2 Page 127 May 1998.
  29. ↑ Daylanne English. Unnatural Selections: Eugenics in American Modernism and the Harlem Renaissance. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004.
  30. ↑ David Levering Lewis. W.E.B. Du Bois: Biography of a Race, 1868-1919 (Owl Books 1994).
  31. ↑ W. E. B. Du Bois, “Heredity and the Public Schools,” in Aptheker, Pamphlets and Leaflets, 50.
  32. ↑ W. E. B. Du Bois, “The Marrying of Black Folk,” The Independent 69 (October 13, 1910): 812-813; reprinted in Herbert Aptheker, ed., Writings by W. E. B. Du Bois in Periodicals Edited by Others vol. 2 (1910-1934), (Kraus-Thomson Organization Limited, 1982), 33.
  33. ↑ W. E. B. Du Bois, “Black Folk and Birth Control,” Birth Control Review 16 (June 1932): 166-167.
  34. ↑ Du Bois, W. E. B (19) [1903]. Gates, Henry Loius and Oliver, Terri Hume. ed.. The Souls of Black Folk (New ed.). New York City: W. W. Norton. ISBN 039397393X. 
  35. ↑ http://www.mltranslations.org/Miscellaneous/DuBoisJVS.htm
  36. ↑ Aptheker, Herbert (December 1993). "On Du Bois's move to Africa - W.E.B. Du Bois", Monthly Review. Retrieved on 2008-01-25. 
  37. ↑ "Du Bois - How to Spell It, How to Say It". W. E. B. Du Bois Global Resource Collection. Berkshire Publishing Group. Retrieved on 2007-11-13.
  38. ↑ http://foia.fbi.gov/dubois/dubois5.pdf

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Location of Africa
Concepts

United States of Africa · Afrocentrism · Kwanzaa · Pan-African colours · Pan-African flag · Négritude · African nationalism · African socialism · African Century · Africanization · Kawaida  · Ujamaa  · Harambee  · Ubuntu  · Zikism
Organizations

African Union (OAU) · Uhuru Movement · UNIA-ACL · African Unification Front · International African Service Bureau