The Tale of Genji

The Tale of Genji (源氏物語, Genji Monogatari^?) is a classic work of Japanese literature attributed to the Japanese noblewoman Murasaki Shikibu in the early eleventh century, around the peak of the Heian Period. It is sometimes called the world's first novel, the first modern novel, the first psychological novel, or the first novel to still be considered a classic, though this issue is a matter of debate (see Stature below.)

The first partial translation of Genji Monogatari into English was by Suematsu Kenchō. A free translation of all but one chapter was produced by Arthur Waley.^[1] Edward Seidensticker made the first complete translation into English, using a more literal method than Waley.^[2] The most recent English translation, by Royall Tyler (2001), also tries to be faithful to the original text.^[3] Diet member Marutei Tsurunen has also made a translation in Finnish.

Contents 1 Introduction 2 Stature 3 Authorship 4 Plot 5 Completion 6 Literary context 7 Modern readership 7.1 Japanese 7.2 English translations 8 Structure 8.1 List of chapters 9 Manuscripts 10 Illustrated scroll 11 Film adaptations 12 Operatic adaptations 13 Characters 13.1 Part II 13.2 Part III 14 Notes 15 Bibliography 16 See also 17 External links

Introduction

The Genji was written chapter by chapter in installments, as Murasaki delivered the tale to women of the aristocracy (the yokibito). It has many elements found in a modern novel: a central character and a very large number of major and minor characters, well-developed characterization of all the major players, a sequence of events happening over a period of time covering the central character's lifetime and beyond. The work does not make use of a plot; instead, much as in real life, events just happen and characters evolve simply by growing older. One remarkable feature of the Genji, and of Murasaki's skill, is its internal consistency, despite a dramatis personae of some four hundred characters. For instance, all characters age in step and all the family and feudal relationships are consistent among all chapters.

One complication for readers and translators of the Genji is that almost none of the characters in the original text is given an explicit name. The characters are instead referred to by their function or role (e.g. Minister of the Left), an honorific (e.g. His Excellency), or their relation to other characters (e.g. Heir Apparent), which may all change as the novel progresses. This lack of names stems from Heian-era court manners that would have made it unacceptably familiar and blunt to freely mention a character's name. Modern readers and translators have, to a greater or lesser extent, used various nicknames to keep track of the many characters. See Characters for a listing.

Stature

“	[The Tale of Genji, as translated by Arthur Waley, is written with an almost miraculous naturalness, and what interests us is not the exoticism — the horrible word — but rather the human passions of the novel. Such interest is just: Murasaki's work is what one would quite precisely call a psychological novel. ... I dare to recommend this book to those who read me. The English translation that has inspired this brief insufficient note is called The Tale of Genji.	”
—Jorge Luis Borges, The Total Library

The Tale of Genji is an important fictional work of Japanese literature, and numerous modern authors have cited it as inspiration. It is noted for its internal consistency, psychological depiction, and characterization. The novelist Yasunari Kawabata said in his Nobel Prize acceptance speech: "The Tale of Genji in particular is the highest pinnacle of Japanese literature. Even down to our day there has not been a piece of fiction to compare with it."

The Genji is also often referred to as "the first novel", though there is considerable debate over this — some of the debate involving whether Genji can even be considered a "novel". Some consider the psychological insight, complexity, and unity of the work to qualify it for "novel" status while simultaneously disqualifying earlier works of prose fiction.^[4] Others see these arguments as subjective and unconvincing. Related claims, perhaps in an attempt to sidestep these debates, are that Genji is the "first psychological novel", "the first novel still considered to be a classic", or other more qualified terms. Claiming that it is the world's first novel inevitably denies the claims of Daphnis and Chloe and Aethiopica in Greek, which Longus and Heliodorus of Emesa respectively wrote, both around the third century, and in Latin, Petronius's Satyricon in the first century and Apuleius's Golden Ass in the second, as well as Kādambari in Sanskrit which author Bānabhatta wrote in the seventh century. (The debate exists in Japanese as well, with comparison between the terms monogatari -- "tale" -- and shōsetsu -- "novel".)

The novel and other works by Lady Murasaki are standard staple in the curricula of Japanese schools. The Bank of Japan issued the 2000 Yen banknote in her honour, featuring a scene from the novel based on the 12th century illustrated handscroll.

Authorship

The debate over how much of the Genji was actually written by Murasaki Shikibu has gone on for centuries and is unlikely to ever be settled unless some major archival discovery is made. It is generally accepted that the tale was finished in its present form by 1021, when the author of the Sarashina Nikki wrote a famous diary entry about her joy at acquiring a complete copy of the tale. She writes that there are over fifty chapters and mentions a character introduced near the end of the work, so if other authors besides Murasaki Shikibu did work on the tale, the work was done very near to the time of her writing.

Yosano Akiko, the first author to make a modern translation of the Genji, believed that Murasaki Shikibu had only written Chapters One to Thirty-three, and that Chapters Thirty-five to Fifty-four were written by her daughter Daini no Sanmi. Other scholars have doubted the authorship of Chapters Forty-two to Forty-four (particularly Forty-four, which contains rare examples of continuity mistakes).

According to Royall Tyler's introduction to his English translation of the work, recent computer analysis has turned up "statistically significant" discrepancies of style between chapters 45–54 and the rest, and also among the early chapters.^[3] But this discrepancy can also be explained by a change in attitude of the author as she grew older, and the earlier chapters are often thought to have been edited into their present form some time after they were initially written.

One of the frequent arguments made against the multiple authorship idea is that the Genji is a work of such genius that someone of equal or greater genius taking over after Murasaki is implausible.

Plot

The work recounts the life of a son of a Japanese emperor, known to readers as Hikaru Genji, or "Shining Genji". Neither appellation is his actual name: Genji (源氏, Genji^?) is simply another way to read the Chinese characters for the real-life Minamoto clan (源の氏, Minamoto-no-Uji^?), to which Genji was made to belong. For political reasons, Genji is relegated to commoner status (by being given the surname Minamoto) and begins a career as an imperial officer. The tale concentrates on Genji's romantic life and describes the customs of the aristocratic society of the time. Much is made of Genji's good looks.

Genji was the second son of a certain ancient emperor and a low-ranking concubine (known to the readers as Lady Kiritsubo). His mother dies when Genji is three years old, and the Emperor cannot forget her. The Emperor then hears of a woman ("Lady Fujitsubo"), formerly a princess of the preceding emperor, who resembles his deceased concubine, and later she becomes one of his wives. Genji loves her first as a stepmother, but later as a woman. They fall in love with each other, but it is forbidden. Genji is frustrated because of his forbidden love to the Lady Fujitsubo and is on bad terms with his wife (Aoi no Ue). He also engages in a series of unfulfilling love affairs with other women. In most cases, his advances are rebuffed, his lover dies suddenly during the affair, or he finds his lover to be dull in each instance. In one case, he sees a beautiful young woman through an open window, enters her room without permission, and forces her to have sex with him. Recognizing him as a man of unchallengeable power, she makes no resistance, saying only that "Someone might hear us." He retorts, "I can go anywhere and do anything."^[5]

Genji visits Kitayama, the northern rural hilly area of Kyoto, where he finds a beautiful ten-year-old girl. He is fascinated by this little girl ("Murasaki"), and discovers that she is a niece of the Lady Fujitsubo. Finally he kidnaps her, brings her to his own palace and educates her to be his ideal lady; like the Lady Fujitsubo. During this time Genji also meets the Lady Fujitsubo secretly, and she bears his son. Everyone except the two lovers believes the father of the child is the Emperor. Later the boy becomes the Crown Prince and Lady Fujitsubo becomes the Empress, but Genji and Lady Fujitsubo swear to keep their secret.

Genji and his wife Lady Aoi reconcile and she gives birth to a son, but she dies soon after. Genji is sorrowful, but finds consolation in Murasaki, whom he marries. Genji's father, the Emperor, dies; and his political enemies, the Minister of the Right and the new Emperor's mother ("Kokiden") take power in the court. Then another of Genji's secret love affairs is exposed: Genji and a concubine of his brother, the Emperor Suzaku, are discovered when they meet in secret. The Emperor confides his personal amusement at Genji's exploits with the woman ("Oborozukiyo"), but is duty-bound to punish his half-brother. Genji is thus exiled to the town of Suma in rural Harima province (now part of Kobe in Hyōgo Prefecture). There, a prosperous man from Akashi in Settsu province (known as the Akashi Novice) entertains Genji, and Genji has a love affair with Akashi's daughter. She gives birth to a daughter. Genji's sole daughter later becomes the Empress.

In the Capital, the Emperor is troubled by dreams of his late father, and something begins to affect his eyes. Meanwhile, his mother grows ill, which weakens her powerful sway over the throne. Thus the Emperor orders Genji pardoned, and he returns to Kyoto. His son by Lady Fujitsubo becomes the emperor and Genji finishes his imperial career. The new Emperor Reizei knows Genji is his real father, and raises Genji's rank to the highest possible.

However, when Genji turns 40 years old, his life begins to decline. His political status does not change, but his love and emotional life are slowly damaged. He marries another wife, the "Third Princess" (known as Onna san no miya in the Seidensticker version, or Nyōsan in Waley's). She bears the son of Genji's nephew later, ("Kaoru"). Genji's new marriage changes the relationship between him and Murasaki, who now wishes to become a nun.

Genji's beloved Murasaki dies. In the following chapter, Maboroshi ("Illusion"), Genji contemplates how fleeting life is. Immediately after Maboroshi, there is a chapter entitled Kumogakure ("Vanished into the Clouds") which is left blank, but implies the death of Genji.

The rest of the work is known as the "Uji Chapters". These chapters follow Niou and Kaoru, who are best friends. Niou is an imperial prince, the son of Genji's daughter, the current Empress now that Reizei has abdicated the throne, while Kaoru is known to the world as Genji's son but is in fact fathered by Genji's nephew. The chapters involve Kaoru and Niou's rivalry over several daughters of an imperial prince who lives in Uji, a place some distance away from the capital. The tale ends abruptly, with Kaoru wondering if the lady he loves is being hidden away by Niou. Kaoru has sometimes been called the first anti-hero in literature.^[6]

Completion

As mentioned in the previous section, the tale ends abruptly, in mid-sentence. Opinions have varied on whether the ending was the intended ending of the author.

Arthur Waley, who made the first English translation of the whole of The Tale of Genji, believed that the work as we have it was finished. Ivan Morris, author of The World of the Shining Prince, believed that it was not complete, but that only a few pages or a chapter at most were "missing". Edward Seidensticker, who made the second translation of the Genji, believed that it was not finished, and that Murasaki Shikibu did not have a planned story structure with an "ending" and would simply have gone on writing as long as she could.

Literary context

Because it was written to entertain the Japanese court of the eleventh century, the work presents many difficulties to modern readers. First and foremost, Murasaki's language, Heian Period court Japanese, was highly inflected and had very complex grammar. Another problem is that naming people was considered rude in Heian court society, so none of the characters are named within the work; instead, the narrator refers to men often by their rank or their station in life, and to women often by the color of their clothing, or by the words used at a meeting, or by the rank of a prominent male relative. This results in different appellations for the same character depending on the chapter.

Another aspect of the language is the importance of using poetry in conversations. Modifying or rephrasing a classic poem according to the current situation was expected behavior in Heian court life, and often served to communicate thinly veiled allusions. The poems in the Genji are often in the classic Japanese tanka form. Many of the poems were well known to the intended audience, so usually only the first few lines are given and the reader is supposed to complete the thought herself, much like today we could say "when in Rome..." and leave the rest of the saying ("...do as the Romans do") unspoken.

As for most Heian literature, the Genji was probably written mostly (or perhaps entirely) in kana (Japanese phonetic script) and not in Chinese characters because it was written by a woman for a female audience. Writing in Chinese characters was at the time a masculine pursuit; women were generally discreet when writing in Chinese, confining themselves mostly to pure Japanese words.

Outside of vocabulary related to politics and Buddhism, the Genji contains remarkably few Chinese loan words. This has the effect of giving the story a very even, smooth flow. However, it also introduces confusion: there are a number of words in the "pure" Japanese vocabulary which have many different meanings, and, for modern readers, context is not always sufficient to determine which meaning was intended.

Murasaki was neither the first nor the last writer of the Heian period, nor was the Genji the earliest example of a "monogatari". Rather, the Genji stands above other tales of the time in the same way that Shakespeare's plays outshine other Elizabethan drama.

Modern readership

Japanese

The complexities of the style mentioned in the previous section make it unreadable by the average Japanese person without dedicated study of the language of the tale. Therefore translations into modern Japanese and other languages solve these problems by modernizing the language, unfortunately losing some of the meaning, and by giving names to the characters, usually the traditional names used by academics. This gives rise to anachronisms; for instance Genji's first wife is named Aoi because she is known as the lady of the Aoi chapter, in which she dies.

Both scholars and writers have tried translating it. The first translation into modern Japanese was made by the poet Yosano Akiko. Other known translations were done by the novelists Jun'ichirō Tanizaki and Fumiko Enchi.

Because of the cultural difference, reading an annotated version of the Genji is quite common, even among Japanese. There are several annotated versions by novelists, including Seiko Tanabe, Osamu Hashimoto and Jakucho Setouchi.^[7] Many works, including a manga series and different television dramas, are derived from The Tale of Genji. There have been at least five manga adaptations of the Genji.^[8] A manga version by Waki Yamato, Asakiyumemishi (The Tale of Genji in English), is widely read among Japanese youth, and another version, by Miyako Maki, won the Shogakukan Manga Award in 1989.^[9]

Most Japanese high-school students will read a little bit of the Genji (the original, not a translation) in their Japanese classes.

English translations

In 2008, WorldCat identifies 88 editions of this book. The five major translations into English are each slightly different -- mirroring the personal choices of the translator and the period in which the translation was made. Each version has its merits, its detractors and its advocates; and each is distinguished by the name of the translator. For example, the less widely circulated version translated by Marutei Tsurunen would typically be referred to as "the Tsurunen Genji."

The generally recognized "best" translations were created by Suematsu Kenchō, Arthur Waley, Edward Seidensticker, Helen McCullough, and Royall Tyler.

Major English translations in chronological order:

• "The Suematsu Genji" -- Suematsu's Genji was the first translation into English, but is considered of poor quality and is not often read today. Significantly, only a few chapters were completed.
  • Suematsu, Kenchō. (1882). The Tale of Genji. London: Trubner.

• "The Waley Genji" -- Waley's Genji is considered a great achievement for his time;^[10] but purists have pointed out many errors^[11] and some have criticized the overly-free manner in which changes were made to Murasaki's original text. However, when the Waley Genji was first published, it could not have been more eagerly received. For example, Time explained that "the reviewers' floundering tributes indicate something of its variegated appeal. In limpid prose The Tale combines curiously modern social satire with great charm of narrative. Translator Waley has done service to literature in salvaging to the Occident this masterpiece of the Orient."^[12]
  • Murasaki, Shikibu. (1926-1933). The Tale of Genji (tr. Arthur Waley). London: George Allen & Unwin. OCLC 24043629
  • ________________. (1926). The tale of Genji by Lady Murasaki (tr. Arthur Waley). New York: Houghton Mifflin. OCLC 38680848
  • ________________. (1952). The tale of Genji 1. Pt. 1 - 3 (tr. Arthur Waley). London: Allyn & Unwin. OCLC 174505067 (11 editions)
    • The Tale of Genji^[10] (1st part).^[13]
    • The Sacred Tree^[10] (2nd part).^[14]
    • The Wreath of Cloud^[10] (3rd part).
  • ________________. (1928). Blue trousers, being the fourth part of "The tale of Genji" (tr. Arthur Waley). New York: Houghton Mifflin. OCLC 493840 (2 editions).^[12]
  • ________________. (1928). The lady of the boat, being the fifth part of the "Tale of Genji" (tr. Arthur Waley). New York: Houghton Mifflin. OCLC 493840 (4 editions)
  • ________________. (1933). The bridge of dreams, being the second volume of "The lady of the boat" and the final part of "The tale of Genji" (tr. Arthur Waley). New York: Houghton Mifflin. OCLC 1835201 (2 editions)
  • ________________. (1934). The Tale of Genji. A Novel in Six Parts by Lady Murasaki (tr. Arthur Waley). London: George Allen & Unwin. OCLC 6070783 (2 editions)
  • ________________. (1935). The Tale of Genji. A Novel in Six Parts by Lady Murasaki (tr. Arthur Waley). New York: Literary Guild. OCLC 10413414
  • ________________. (1960). The Tale of Genji: A Novel in Six Parts (tr. Arthur Waley). New York: Modern Library. OCLC 325524

• The Seidensticker Genji -- Seidensticker's Genji is an attempt to correct what were perceived to have been Waley's failings without necessarily making his translation obsolete. Seidensticker hews more closely to the original text, but in the interests of readability, he takes some liberties. For example, he identifies the cast of characters by name so that the narrative can be more easily followed by a broad-based audience of Western readers.
  • Murasaki Shikibu. (1976). The Tale of Genji (tr. Edward Seidensticker). New York: Alfred A. Knopf. 10-ISBN 0-394-48328-6; 13-ISBN 978-0-394-48328-3 (cloth) -- 10-ISBN 0-394-73530-7; 13-ISBN 978-0-394-73530-6 (paper)

• The McCullough Genji:
  • McCullough, Helen Craig. (1994). Genji & Heike: Selections from The Tale of Genji and The Tale of the Heike. Stanford: Stanford University Press. 10-ISBN 0-804-72257-9; 13-ISBN 978-0-804-72257-5 (cloth) -- 10-ISBN 0-804-72258-7; 13-ISBN 978-0804-72258-2 (paper)

• The Tyler Genji -- Tyler's Genji contains more extensive explanatory footnotes and commentary than the previous translations, describing the numerous poetical allusions and cultural aspects of the tale. Tyler consciously attempted to mimic the original style in ways that the previous translations did not. For example, this version doesn't use names for most characters, identifying them instead by their titles in a manner which was conventional in the context of the 11th century original text. Tyler's version "makes a special virtue of attending to a certain ceremonial indirectness in the way the characters address one another. The great temptation for a translator is to say the unsaid things, and Tyler never gives in to it."^[15]
  • Murasaki Shikibu. (2001) The Tale of Genji. (tr. Royall Tyler). New York: Viking Press. 10-ISBN 0-670-03020-1; 13-ISBN 978-0-670-03020-0 (cloth)
  • ________________. (2002). The Tale of Genji (tr. Royall Tyler). New York: Penguin Classics. 10-ISBN 0-142-43714-X; 13-ISBN 978-0-142-43714-8 (paper)]

Structure

The novel is traditionally divided in three parts, the first two dealing with the life of Genji, and the last dealing with the early years of two of Genji's prominent descendants, Niou and Kaoru. There are also several short transitional chapters which are usually grouped separately and whose authorship is sometimes questioned.

1. Genji's rise and fall
   1. Youth, chapters 1–33: Love, romance, and exile
   2. Success and setbacks, chapters 34–41: A taste of power and the death of his beloved wife
2. The transition (chapters 42–44): Very short episodes following Genji's death
3. Uji, chapters 45–54: Genji's official and secret descendants, Niou and Kaoru

The last and therefore 54th chapter "The Floating Bridge of Dreams" is argued sometimes a separate part from the Uji part by the modern scholars. It seems to continue the story from the previous chapters, but has an unusually abstract chapter title. It is the only chapter whose title has no clear reference within the text, but this may be because the chapter is unfinished. (This question is more difficult because we do not know exactly when the chapters acquired their titles.)

List of chapters

The English translations here are taken from the Edward Seidensticker and the Royall Tyler translations. The first version refers to Seidensticker's edition, the second, to Tyler's. It is not known for certain when the chapters acquired their titles. Early mentions of the Tale refer to chapter numbers, or contain alternate titles for some of the chapters. This may suggest that the titles were added later. The titles are largely derived from poetry that is quoted within the text, or allusions to various characters.

Chapter	Japanese	Seidensticker	Tyler
1	Kiritsubo (桐壺, Kiritsubo?)	"Paulownia Court"	"Paulownia Pavilion"
2	Hahakigi (帚木, Hahakigi?)	"Broom Tree"
3	Utsusemi (空蝉, Utsusemi?)	"Shell of the Locust"	"Cicada Shell"
4	Yūgao (夕顔, Yūgao?)	"Evening Faces"	"Twilight Beauty"
5	Wakamurasaki (若紫, Wakamurasaki?)	"Lavander"	"Young Murasaki"
6	Suetsumuhana (末摘花, Suetsumuhana?)	"Safflower"
7	Momiji no Ga (紅葉賀, Momiji no Ga?)	"Autumn Excursion"	"Beneath the Autumn Leaves"
8	Hana no En (花宴, Hana no En?)	"Festival of the Cherry Blossoms"	"Under the Cherry Blossoms"
9	Aoi (葵, Aoi?)	"Heartvine"	"Heart-to-Heart"
10	Sakaki (榊, Sakaki?)	"Sacred Tree"	"Green Branch"
11	Hana Chiru Sato (花散里, Hana Chiru Sato?)	"Orange Blossoms"	"Falling Flowers"
12	Suma (須磨, Suma?)	"Suma"
13	Akashi (明石, Akashi?)	"Akashi"
14	Miotsukushi (澪標, Miotsukushi?)	"Channel Buoys"	"Pilgrimage to Sumiyoshi"
15	Yomogiu (蓬生, Yomogiu?)	"Wormwood Patch"	"Waste of Weeds"
16	Sekiya (関屋, Sekiya?)	"Gatehouse"	"At The Pass"
17	E Awase (絵合, E Awase?)	"Picture Contest"
18	Matsukaze (松風, Matsukaze?)	"Wind in the Pines"
19	Usugumo (薄雲, Usugumo?)	"Rack of Clouds"	"Wisps of Cloud"
20	Asagao (朝顔, Asagao?)	"Morning Glory"	"Bluebell"
21	Otome (乙女, Otome?)	"Maiden"	"Maidens"
22	Tamakazura (玉鬘, Tamakazura?)	"Jeweled Chaplet"	"Tendril Wreath"
23	Hatsune (初音, Hatsune?)	"First Warbler"	"Warbler's First Song"
24	Kochō (胡蝶, Kochō?)	"Butterflies"
25	Hotaru (螢, Hotaru?)	"Fireflies"
26	Tokonatsu (常夏, Tokonatsu?)	"Wild Carnation"	"Pink"
27	Kagaribi (篝火, Kagaribi?)	"Flares"	"Cressets"
28	Nowaki (野分, Nowaki?)	"Typhoon"
29	Miyuki (行幸, Miyuki?)	"Royal Outing"	"Imperial Progress"
30	Fujibakama (藤袴, Fujibakama?)	"Purple Trousers"	"Thoroughwort Flowers"
31	Makibashira (真木柱, Makibashira?)	"Cypress Pillar"	"Handsome Pillar"
32	Mume ga E (梅枝, Mume ga E?)	"Branch of Plum"	"Plum Tree Branch"
33	Fuji no Uraba (藤裏葉, Fuji no Uraba?)	"Wisteria Leaves"	"New Wisteria Leaves"
34	Wakana: Jō (若菜上, Wakana: Jō?)	"New Herbs, Part I"	"Spring Shoots I"
35	Wakana: Ge (若菜下, Wakana: Ge?)	"New Herbs, Part II"	"Spring Shoots II"
36	Kashiwagi (柏木, Kashiwagi?)	"Oak Tree"
37	Yokobue (横笛, Yokobue?)	"Flute"
38	Suzumushi (鈴虫, Suzumushi?)	"Bell Cricket"
39	Yūgiri (夕霧, Yūgiri?)	"Evening Mist"
40	Minori (御法, Minori?)	"Rites"	"Law"
41	Maboroshi (幻, Maboroshi?)	"Wizard"	"Seer"
X	Kumogakure (雲隠, Kumogakure?)		"Vanished into the Clouds"
42	Niō Miya (匂宮, Niō Miya?)	"His Perfumed Highness"	"Perfumed Prince"
43	Kōbai (紅梅, Kōbai?)	"Rose Plum"	"Red Plum Blossoms"
44	Takekawa (竹河, Takekawa?)	"Bamboo River"
45	Hashihime (橋姫, Hashihime?)	"Lady at the Bridge"	"Maiden of the Bridge"
46	Shī ga Moto (椎本, Shī ga Moto?)	"Beneath the Oak"
47	Agemaki (総角, Agemaki?)	"Trefoil Knots"
48	Sawarabi (早蕨, Sawarabi?)	"Early Ferns"	"Bracken Shoots"
49	Yadorigi (宿木, Yadorigi?)	"Ivy"
50	Azumaya (東屋, Azumaya?)	"Eastern Cottage"
51	Ukifune (浮舟, Ukifune?)	"Boat upon the Waters"	"A Drifting Boat"
52	Kagerō (蜻蛉, Kagerō?)	"Drake Fly"	"Mayfly"
53	Tenarai (手習, Tenarai?)	"Writing Practice"
54	Yume no Ukihashi (夢浮橋, Yume no Ukihashi?)	"Floating Bridge of Dreams"

The additional chapter between 41 and 42 in some manuscripts is called 雲隠 (Kumogakure) which means "Vanished into the Clouds" — the chapter is a title only, and is probably intended to evoke Genji's death. Some scholars have posited the existence of a chapter between 1 and 2 which is now lost, which would have introduced some characters that (as it stands now) appear very abruptly.

Later authors have composed additional chapters, most often either between 41 and 42, or after the end.

Manuscripts

The original manuscript written by Murasaki Shikibu is no longer extant. Numerous copies, totaling around 300 according to Ikeda Kikan, exist with differences between each. It is thought that Shikibu often went back and edited early manuscripts introducing discrepancies with earlier copies.^[16]

The various manuscripts are classified into three categories^[17][18]:

• Kawachibon (河内本, Kawachibon^?)
• Aobyōshibon (青表紙本, Aobyōshibon^?)
• Beppon (別本, Beppon^?)

In the 13th century, two major attempts by Minamoto no Chikayuki and Fujiwara Teika were made to edit and revise the differing manuscripts. The Chikayuki manuscript is known as the Kawachibon; edits were many beginning in 1236 and completing in 1255. The Teika manuscript is known as the Aobyōshibon; its edits are more conservative and thought to better represent the original. These two manuscripts were used as the basis for many future copies.

The Beppon category represents all other manuscripts not belonging to either Kawachibon or Aobyōshibon. This includes older but incomplete manuscripts, mixed manuscripts derived from both Kawachibon and Aobyōshibon, and commentaries.

On March 10th, 2008 it was announced that a late Kamakura period manuscript was found in Kyōto. ^{[19] [20]} It is the sixth chapter "Suetsumuhana" and is 65 pages in length. Most remaining manuscripts are based on copies of the Teika manuscript which introduced revisions in the original. This newly discovered manuscript belongs to a different lineage and was not influenced by Teika. Professor Yamamoto Tokurō who examined the manuscript said, "This is a precious discovery as Kamakura manuscripts are so rare." Professor Katō Yōsuke said, "This is an important discovery as it asserts that non-Teika manuscripts were being read during the Kamakura period."

On October 29th, 2008 Konan Women's University announced that a mid-Kamakura period manuscript was found. ^{[21] [22] [23]} It is the 32nd chapter, Umegae, and is recognized as the oldest extant copy of this chapter dating between 1240-1280. This beppon manuscript is 74 pages in length and differs from Aobyōshi manuscripts in at least four places, raising the "possibility that the contents may be closer to the undiscovered Murasaki Shikibu original manuscript" ^[21].

Illustrated scroll

A twelfth century scroll, the Genji Monogatari Emaki, contains illustrated scenes from the Genji together with handwritten sōgana text. This scroll is the earliest extant example of a Japanese "picture scroll": collected illustrations and calligraphy of a single work. The original scroll is believed to have comprised 10-20 rolls and covered all 54 chapters. The extant pieces include only 19 illustrations and 65 pages of text, plus nine pages of fragments. This is estimated at roughly 15% of the envisioned original. The Tokugawa Art Museum in Nagoya has three of the scrolls handed down in the Owari branch of the Tokugawa clan and one scroll held by the Hachisuka family is now in the Gotoh Museum in Tokyo. The scrolls are designated National Treasures of Japan. The scrolls are so sensitive to light and air, that they are never shown in public and sealed away. An oversize English photoreproduction and translation was printed in limited edition by Kodansha International (Tale of Genji Scroll, ISBN 0-87011-131-0).

Other notable versions are by Tosa Mitsuoki, who lived from 1617 to 1691. His paintings are closely based on Heian style from the existing scrolls from the 12th century and are fully complete. The tale was also a popular theme in Ukiyo-e prints from the Edo period.

Film adaptations

The Tale of Genji has been translated into cinematic form several times. In 1951 by director Kōzaburō Yoshimura, in 1966 by director Kon Ichikawa, and in 1987 by director Gisaburo Sugii. The latter is an animated film. The last is not a complete version, and basically covers the first 12 chapters, while adding in some psychological motivation that is not made explicit in the novel. In 2001 Tonko Horikawa made an adaptation with an all-female cast. In the movie, Sennen no Koi - Hikaru Genji Monogatari ("Genji, A 1000-Year Love"), Murasaki tells the Genji story to a girl as a lesson on men's behavior. The 1955 Kenji Mizoguchi film Yokihi (or Princess Yang Kwei-fei) can be seen as a sort of prequel to Genji.

Operatic adaptations

The Tale of Genji has also been adapted into an opera by Miki Minoru, composed during 1999 and first performed the following year at the Opera Theatre of Saint Louis, with original libretto by Colin Graham (in English), later translated into Japanese by the composer.

Characters

A Note on Heian names: The characters of The Tale of Genji do not possess the equivalent of what we now call proper birth names. Instead they are assigned sobriquets derived from poetic exchanges (ex. Murasaki takes her name from a poem by Genji), from the particular court positions they occupy (in the Tyler translation, characters are often referred to by such terms as His Highness of War, Her Majesty the Empress, His Grace, the Palace Minister and so on), from their geographical location (ex. Lady Akashi who lived on the Akashi coast before meeting Genji), or from the name of their residence (ex. Lady Rokujō, whose mansion is on the Sixth Avenue, rokujō, or Fujitsubo, literally wisteria pavilion, the part of the Imperial Palace where this particular lady resided). Out of the two most recent translations into English, Seidensticker’s tends to systematically employ the same names (ex. Genji, Murasaki, Akashi, Utsusemi, etc.), whereas Tyler’s, more textually accurate translation, tends to change sometimes characters’ appellation with every chapter.

Similarly, many women writers of the Heian period left behind their sobriquets alone. Murasaki Shikibu is no exception: “Murasaki” is presumably borrowed from her character in the tale, whereas “Shikibu” refers to a court position in the Bureau of Ceremonial (shikibu), that her father used to occupy.

A Note on Genji Characters: Following Genji, all the other characters are introduced following the chronology of the events in the tale. However, this chronology does not take into account the first time a character is mentioned, but rather the time a character actually makes his or her debut into the tale. Some of the character descriptions below include a reference to the chapter in which the character is introduced to the narrative. Important characters are in capital letters.

• GENJI (Prince Genji/Hikaru Genji/ the Shining Genji/ the Shining Prince) - The eponymous hero of the tale, he is the son of an emperor (usually referred to as Kiritusbo Emperor) and of a low-ranking imperial concubine (known to readers as Lady Kiritsubo or Kiritsubo Kōi). Many scholars have tried to decipher the real or fictional model behind the character of Genji and some of the favorite candidates are Ariwara no Narihira (the hero of The Tales of Ise), Emperor Murakami, Sugawara no Michizane, Minamoto no Takaakira or Fujiwara no Korechika^[24]. Independently of Murasaki Shikibu’s sources of inspiration, Hikaru Genji cannot be simply reduced to being a mere fictional reflection of a real historical figure.In the tale, Genji occupies chapter stage from chapters one to forty-one and the narrative focuses on his amorous exploits and political successes. Although demoted to commoner status (and forced to take the name of Minamoto), Genji raises in ranks to the position of Honorary Retired Emperor and lives to see his children becoming Emperor, Empress and Minister, respectively. In the realm of amorous relationships, the narrative follows Genji from his adventurous youth, a time in which he engages in multiple relationships with women of various ranks, to his mature years, when his political and erotic success is best reflected in his Rokujō-in mansion, a residence built to shelter the most important women in his life and to mirror the Imperial Palace (or at least its hidden quarters reserved to the emperor’s female staff)^[25]. The peak of Genji’s glory however, also announces his slow but inexorable decline and chapters such as “Nowaki” and “Wakana” reveal his vulnerability in front of a new generation of young heroes, Yūgiri and Kashiwagi. The disintegration of Genji’s world becomes final with the death of his beloved Murasaki, in chapter forty, “Minori,” and not long after, the Prince’s shining light is finally extinguished.

• Kiritsubo Lady (the Kiritsubo Intimate/ Kiritsubo Kōi/ Kiritsubo Consort) – Genji’s mother and the favorite of Emperor Kiritsub, Lady Kiritsubo is disadvantaged at court because she lacks parental support. Her father, a Grad Counselor, is already dead at the beginning of the narrative, and her mother cannot provide her with political support. Thus, the lady provokes the jealousy of other imperial concubines, in particular that of the Kokiden Consort, a lady with well-founded hopes of becoming Empress. As a result, Kiritusbo is constantly harassed by the other women and the humiliations she has to suffer at court eventually trigger her premature death, only three years after having given birth to Genji.Her name is derived from the Paulownia Pavilion, where she resided while at the Imperial Court, the farthest location from the emperor’s chambers and symbolic of the lady’s low status (at least when compared to other imperial concubines).(chapter 1)

• Kiritsubo Emperor ( Kiritsubo Emperor/ Kiritsubo no Mikado) - Genji’s father, who despite the large social gap between him and the Kiritsubo Lady, maintains an unwavering devotion to her, tragically exposing her to the jealousy of his other consorts. Aware of Genji’s fate were he to attract the hostility of the Kokiden Lady, and also worried about the predictions made by a Korean soothsayer concerning Genji’s potential future (as an emperor, Genji would bring about unrest and suffering; as a minister, he would encounter unprecedented success), the Emperor demotes Genji from imperial prince to commoner. Thus, at least in theory, Genji is forbidden to ascend to the throne. Instead, Kiritsubo Emperor names Suzaku, Genji’s stepbrother and the son of the ambitious Kokiden Lady as Heir Apparent (or Crown Prince). Furthermore, the emperor also arranges Genji’s marriage to Aoi, the daughter of the Minister of the Left and, by this, ensures that his son will benefit from the powerful political support of his father-in-law, the only one able to balance the influence of Kokiden and her party. Sometime after the death of his beloved Kiritsubo, the emperor learns of the existence of an imperial princess, referred to as Fujitsubo (again, after the name of her residence, the Wisteria Pavilion), who uncannily resembles his lost love. Of an incomparable higher status than her unfortunate predecessor, Fujitsubo goes on to become the emperor’s favorite and ultimately Empress, but her resemblance to Genji’s mother also attracts Genji’s initially childish interest in her. This childish interest, once turned erotic, fuels much of the later narrative plot.(chapter 1; dies chapter 10)

• Suzaku (later, Emperor Suzaku/ Suzaku (Tale of Genji)) – The son of Kiritsubo Emperor by the Kokiden Lady, Genji’s stepbrother and grandson of the powerful Minister of the Right, he is named Heir Apparent, although the Kiritsubo Emperor would have personally preferred to make Genji a Crown Prince. Apparently a pathetic figure throughout the narrative (he is cuckolded by Genji, sees the women he would like to have taken away from him, becomes a puppet in the hands of his mother and her political faction), Suzaku still retains a tragic dignity, especially during the “Wakana” chapters, when, after having abdicated and taken Buddhist vows, his religious devotion is obstructed by his excessive paternal love for his favorite daughter, the Third Princess (Onna San No Miya/ Nyōsan). Moreover, at least one Genji critic distinguishes Suzaku’s vengeful potential, by identifying him with the possessing spirit affecting the women of the Uji chapters.^[26] .(chapter 1; like Genji's death, Suzaku's death is not featured in the narrative)

• Kokiden Lady (Kokiden Consort) – Kiritsubo Emperor's consort of higher rank (nyōgo) than Lady Kiritsubo (kōi), she is the daughter of the powerful Minister of the Right. Bitterly jealous of the emperor’s love for Kiritsubo, once her rival is dead, her animosity comes to affect her rival’s son, Genji. Thus, due to political scheming, she finally has her son, Suzaku, appointed Heir Apparent. Nevertheless, once Fujitsubo debuts into the narrative, Kokiden is confronted with a much powerful rival, one that is not as socially unstable as Kiritsubo and thus can claim the title of Empress, leaving Kokiden to contend herself with being “only” the Empress Mother. Time and again, Kokiden figures in the narrative as Genji’s archrival, plotting and scheming to eliminate him from court and finally succeeding to strip him of his rank and send him into exile at Suma. Genji’s return from exile marks the beginning of his political ascension and also his victory of the Kokiden Lady.(chapter 1-14)

• FUJITSUBO (Her Highness/ Majesty Fujitsubo/ Lady Fujitsubo) – Daughter of a previous emperor and thus imperial princess, Fujitsubo enters the service of Emperor Kiritsubo at the age of sixteenth, mainly because of her resemblance to the deceased Lady Kiritsubo. She soon becomes an imperial favorite, but also Genji’s childhood crush and later lifelong obsession. By chapter seven, “Momiji no ha,” it becomes obvious that Fujitsubo and Genji are already involved in an illicit love affair (although the author does not describes, but rather implies the beginning of the relationship), the result of which is the birth of Reizei (future emperor) whom everyone, except the two lovers, believes to be the son of the Kiritsubo Emperor. Elevated to the rank of Empress and having her son named Heir Apparent (Reizei is supposed to succeed Suzaku), Fujitsubo gradually grows more and more troubled by guilt and the fear of having her secret exposed. Once Genji’s advances intensify and, in the public realm, the faction of the Kokiden Lady comes to power, Fujitsubo’s only countermeasure is to take vows and become a nun (“Sakaki”). By this, she hopes on the one hand, to permanently put Genji off and eliminate the risk of their affair being discovered and, on the other hand, to reassure Kokiden that she renounces any secular, political claims to power. After Genji’s return from exile, she forms a political alliance with him and turns into a genuine “politically ambitious” ^[27] figure in the tale. Only on her deathbed (in “Usugumo”) does she return to being a romantic heroine.^[28] Nevertheless, Fujitsubo’s importance in the tale lies beyond her immediate contribution to the plot, in what Norma Filed termed as being an “original substitute” ^[29] (she makes her debut as a substitute for Kiritsubo, yet, later, Genji will look for substitutes for her, in women such as Utsusemi, the Third Princess, but most of all, in Murasaki). (chapter 1; chapter 10 becomes a nun; chapter 19 dies)

• Omyōbu(Fujitsubo’s Ōmyōbu) – She is a lady-in-waiting in Fujitsubo’s service and Genji’s accomplice. Her major narrative role is to facilitate Genji’s access to Fujitsubo, event which will have as result the birth of future emperor Reizei. In addition, she acts as go-between in their epistolary exchanges. (chapters 5-12)

• Minister of the Left (Sadaijin) – Genji’s father-in-law, father to Aoi and Tō no Chūjō, his role is to maintain perfect political balance at the Emperor Kiritsubo’s court by countering the influence exerted by the Minister of the Right. He is entrusted with Genji’s fate and become his protector during Genji’s younger years. With the death of the Kiritsubo Emperor however, the Minister falls out of favor and eventually retires from public activities altogether. His main wife is Princess Ōmiya, the mother of Aoi and Tō no Chūjō.(chapter 1-chapter 19)

• Minister of the Right (Udaijin) – Kokiden Lady’s father and thus Kiritsubo emperor’s father-in-law, the Minister of the Right plays a role similar to the historical position of the Fujiwara leaders (see Fujiwara clan). Like them, the Minister marries his daughter to the emperor, has his grandchild appointed Heir Apparent and rules de facto after the abdication (in the Genji, after the death) of the emperor. Although one of Genji’s enemy, the Minister is often portrayed as un-courtly, indiscreet, even headstrong, but never more evil or more determined to destroy Genji than his daughter, the Kokiden Consort. The Minister of the Right is also Tō no Chūjō’s father-in-law.(chapter 1-chapter 13)

• TŌ NO CHŪJŌ (Tō no Chūjō) – The son of the Minister of the Left and brother of Aoi, he becomes Genji’s friend and rival in love during the Prince’s adolescence and youth. Their relationship remains fairly harmonious for the first twelve chapters of the tale: they engage in conversations about women, share their amorous experiences and love letters and, once in a while compete, or pretend to compete, in conquering a woman (with Suetsumuhana, the competition seems more genuine, whereas in the case of Gen no naishi, it is a mock-competition meant to create a humorous interlude). Unbeknown to Tō no Chūjō however, Genji has an affair with one of his former mistresses, Yūgao, finds out about the existence of his friend’s child, yet reveals nothing to him and, for all that we know, Tō no Chūjō remains ignorant of these events until the end. After Genji’s return from exile however, his friendly rivalry with Tō no Chūjō is no longer related to love matters, but becomes political. Although associated with the Fujiwara clan, Tō no Chūjō is not on the winning side: the daughters he sends to court are always outshined by Genji’s own candidates so that Tō no Chūjō can never get to play the part of a Fujiwara regent. Later in the tale, the two heroes, Genji and Tō no Chūjō seem to reach some sort of reconciliation, once Genji revels to Tō no Chūjō the existence of his daughter, Tamakazura, and the latter finally accepts Yūgiri, Genji’s son, as his son-in-law.(chapter 1-chapter 41)

• AOI( Lady Aoi/ Aoi no Ue - Daughter of the Minister of the Left ( Tō no Chūjō’s sister) and Genji’s first principal wife, she marries Genji when she is sixteen and he only twelve.Proud and distant to her husband, Aoi is constantly aware of the age difference between them and very much hurt by Genji’s philandering. For a short while, after giving birth to Genji’s son, Yūgiri, and suffering episodes of spirit possession, does Aoi actually appear appealing in Genji’s eyes. The episode of spirit possession itself (mono no ke) is extremely controversial and brings forward two female characters of the tale: Aoi (Genji’s wife) and Lady Rokujō (Genji’s mistress). The relationship between the two women may be that between victim and aggressor, if one follows the traditional interpretation of spirit possession ^[30], or that between accomplices expressing their discontent with the Heian system of polygynous marriage (and with Genji, obviously).^[31] Aoi dies at the end of the “Aoi” chapter and her exit from the tale is thus definitive.(chapter 1-chapter 9)

• Ki no Kami (Governor of Kii) – One of Genji’s retainers, he is the son of the Iyo Deputy and stepson of Utsusemi.Later becomes Governor of Kawachi. (chapters 2 and 16)

• Iyo no Suke (Iyo Deputy) – He is the father of the Governor of Kii and husband of Utsusemi.Later becomes the Deputy Governor of Hitachi. (chapters 2,4 and 16)

• UTSUSEMI(Utsusemi/Ciccada Shell/ Lady of the Locust Shell) – She is the wife of the Iyo Deputy and step-mother of the Governor of Kii. She attracts Genji’s attention, but resists his courtship despite his repeated attempts to win her over. Although she will not become a central character of the tale, Utsusemi is memorable as the first woman Genji court in the tale and whose courtship the readers actually witness and also, arguably, as the first to resist him.(chapters 2,3,4; reenters the tale in chapter 16; is mentioned again in chapter 23)

• Chūjō(Utsusemi's Chūjō) - She is Utsusemi’s servant and her name literally translates “the captain.” Because Genji was a Captain in the Palace Guards at the moment of his meeting with Utsusemi, he takes advantage of the confusion between his rank and the servant’s name to steal into the lady’s chambers (Utsusemi calls for Chūjō and Genji pretends he misinterpreted her words). Because there are six other ladies-in-waiting in the tale all referred to as “Chūjō”, the best way to differentiate among them is to mention who their mistress/ master is.(chapter 2)

• Kogimi - He is Utsusemi’s brother and 12 or 13 at the time of the narrative in the “Hahakigi” chapter. Genji is delighted with the boy and uses him as a go-between in the letter exchanges with Utsusemi and Nokiba no ogi. At the end of the “Hahakigi” chapter, frustrated because he cannot reach Utsusemi, who took refuge in a different pavilion of the Governor of Kii’s mansion, Genji beds little Kogimi as a replacement for his sister. This episode constitutes the only open reference to homosexuality (or even better, pederasty) in the tale. The boy reappears in chapter sixteen, “Sekiya”, as Second of the Right Gate Watch (in Tyler’s translation), but by then he is already an adult and of no relevance to the narrative.(chapters 2 and 3; reappears in chapter 16)

• Nokiba no Ogi - She is the daughter of the Iyo Deputy and the sister of the Governor of Kii, in other words, Utsusemi’s step-daughter. She is a fleeting presence in the tale and only briefly does she take center stage in chapter three, “Utsusemi.” During his pursuit of the Lady of the Locust Shell, Genji engages in kaimami (lit. “peeping through a hole”) on Utsusemi and Nokiba no ogi playing go. When later, he intrudes into the lady’s bedchamber with Kogimi’s complicity, Genji fails to capture Utsusemi, who feels leaving behind her outer robe and her sleeping step-daughter. Having been caught in a case of mistaken identity, Genji cannot extricate himself from the situation and ends up sleeping with Nokiba no ogi (whom he woes into believing she is indeed the object of his desire). Needless to say that Genji quickly forgets this unfortunate event and, later, when he finds out about the girl’s prospective marriage, he is confident that, married or not, Nokiba no ogi will never refuse his advances.(chapters 3,4)

• Koremitsu - He is Genji’s foster brother (in fact his milk brother menotogo; Koremitsu’s mother was Genji’s wet nurse), trusted servant and accomplice. He plays his most prominent part in the “Yūgao” chapter, where he approaches Yūgao and facilitates Genji’s subsequent courtship of the lady. After Yūgao’s death, it is Koremitsu who carries her dead body and arranges for her funeral rites. Similarly to the Yūgao episode, Koremitsu also serves Genji in the following chapter, “Wakamurasaki,” where he acts as a go-between for Genji and Shōnagon, Murasaki’s nurse, as well as Genji’s accomplice in the kidnapping of Murasaki. A very useful servant and mediator in Genji’s love affairs, Koremitsu even accompanies Genji during his exile to Suma. Later in the tale, however, his presence becomes more sporadic.(chapters 4-21)

• YŪGAO - She is a woman of lower status of about nineteen with whom Genji has a short affair in the eponymous chapter four, “Yūgao.” Before encountering Genji, Yūgao was Tō no Chūjō’s mistress and even gave him a daughter, the future Tamakazura. However, because of the jealousy of Tō no Chūjō’s main wife, Yūgao leaves him and goes into hiding. It is under these circumstances that Genji encounters her, while out visiting his former wet nurse (Koremitsu’s mother). The woman’s name translates as “Evening Faces” and refers to the flowers that attract Genji’s attraction to Yūgao’s shabby abode. Genji becomes very fond of this woman, of which he apparently knows next to nothing, and proceeds to move her to an abandoned mansion where she falls pray to spirit possession and dies. The possessing spirit is traditionally associated with Lady Rokujō. (chapter 4)

• Ukon (Yūgao’s Ukon) - She is the daughter of Yūgao’s nurse and the lady-in-waiting closest to Yūgao. Orphaned at an early age, Ukon was raised by Yūgao’s father and grew up together with the lady, whom she is extremely attached to. After loosing Yūgao, she wants to follow her mistress into death, but gives in to Genji’s pleas and enters his service. She will come to play a great role in the discovery of Yūgao’s daughter, Tamakazura. There are two other ladies-in-waiting named Ukon in the tale (one in the service of Naka no Kimi, the other in the service of Ukifune, but only the latter plays a similarly important role as Yūgao’s Ukon).(chapters 4 and 22)

• LADY ROKUJŌ (The Rokujō Haven/ Rokujō no miyasudokoro/ Rokujō) - She is a lady of high birth and Genji’s senior by seven years. Introduced in the tale narrative in chapter four, “Yūgao,” as Genji’s lover, Rokujō is not mentioned in any of the previous chapters. Nevertheless, the later narrative does clarify certain biographical aspects related to this lady. Thus, she is the widow of a former Crown Prince (presumably one of Emperor Kiritsubo’s brothers) and would have become an empress, if not for her husband’s untimely death. Because of her outstanding social position, she is entitled to be treated with the utmost respect, a fact which Genji, too caught up in his philandering, neglects to do. Humiliated by Genji’s disrespect for her, angered and jealous by the rumors of his affairs, Rokujō becomes the perfect candidate for being the possessing spirit behind Yūgao’s demise, at least in traditional interpretations of the tale. Her identification as possessing spirit is further reinforced in the “Aoi” chapter, where several clues seem to make her the culprit in Aoi’s possession and death. Troubled by the gossip about her involvement in Aoi’s possession, Rokujō herself comes to believe in her own guilt. As a result, she decides to follow her daughter, appointed as Priestess, to Ise. After her return to the capital, she entrusts her daughter, Akikonomu, to Genji and dies in chapter fourteen, “Miotsukushi.” Following her death, she keeps being identified as the spirit inflicting torment upon Genji’s women, Murasaki and the Third Princess to be exact. (chapters 4-14; as the presumed possessing spirit, chapters 35,36)

• MURASAKI (Murasaki/Lady Murasaki/ Murasaki no Ue) – She is the daughter of Prince Hyōbu by a minor consort and related to Fujitsubo on her father’s side (Hyōbu is Fujitsubo’s brother, hence Murasaki is Fujitsubo’s niece). She makes her debut into the tale as a substitute for her unattainable aunt, but she gradually outshines Fujitsubo in Genji’s and the readers’ eyes, turning into “a substitute for all seasons.”^[32] In fact, her very name, “Murasaki” translated as “Lavender,” plays on the affinity of two colors (the color “murasaki” is purple of a darker hue than “fuji”, wisteria, of Fujitsubo’s name). Discovered by Genji in the Northern Hills when she is only ten, she is taken into his Nijō residence after the death of her grandmother (the episode of her kidnapping has definite violent undertones) where she is molded into Genji’s ideal woman, not unlike the myth of Galatea, with whom she is often compared.^[33] She remains Genji’s most important lover throughout the tale, but, because of her imperfect social status (she is of royal blood on her father’s side, but her mother was a commoner), she can never be acknowledged as Genji’s main wife (kita no kata). For that reason, her position is perpetually insecure, especially when Genji’s attention tends to shift to other women, such as Akashi, Asagao, but most importantly the Third Princess. Childless her entire life, Murasaki can only adopt Genji’s daughter by the Akashi Lady and raise her to become an empress. Towards the end of her life, she repeatedly expresses her desire to become a nun, but meets Genji’s irrevocable opposition. She becomes the victim of spirit possession in chapter 35 (the aggressor is once more identified as Rokujō, though this interpretation has been debated ^[34]) and dies in chapter 40 at the age of forty-three without having realized her wish. Murasaki as a character of the Genji has triggered much debate among scholars. Some see her as an utterly miserable character ^[35], while others claim that her relationship with Genji is the best things that could have happened to a woman of Murasaki’s status^[36]. The beauty of this character resides precisely in its complexity. (chapters 5-40)

• Shōnagon (Murasaki’s Shōnagon) – She is Murasaki’s nurse and most important protector after the grandmother. Even so, after the grandmother’s death, Shōnagon is not high-ranking enough to oppose Genji’s plans and, faced with the decision of either to follow her young mistress to Genji’s Nijō (at the risk of being accused of kidnapping by Prince Hyōbu, once he finds out the girl is missing) or to abandon her, she takes the first choice. Later, impressed by Genji’s social standing as well as by the care he devotes to Murasaki, Shōnagon is quite happy with her decision. As Murasaki ages, Shōnagon slips out of the narrative unnoticed. (chapters 4-12)

• Kitayama no Amagimi (The Nun, Murasaki’s grandmother) – She is Murasaki’s maternal grandmother who took custody of the child after the mother’s death. While alive, she adamantly rejects Genji’s offers of taking care of the girl because she sees through his innocent-looking pleas and guesses his ulterior sexual designs for Murasaki ^[37]. At the same time, she does not want Murasaki to return to her father’s household for fear of Prince Hyōbu’s main wife, whose jealousy of Murasaki’s mother might make her persecute the child as well. After the grandmother’s death, Genji takes advantage of the situation and spirits Murasaki away before her father could take her to his house. (chapter 5)

• Prince Hyōbu (His Highness of War/ Hyōbukyō no Miya) – He is Fujitsubo’s brother and Murasaki’s father. Of royal blood (like Fujitsubo, he is the son of a former emperor), Prince Hyōbu is married with a woman suiting his high status who is extremely jealous of Murasaki’s mother, a woman below her own social position. The text goes as far as to suggest that Murasaki’s mother died because of the constant harassment of Hyōbu’s main wife, not unlike Kiritsubo. After the woman’s death however, Hyōbu and his wife are both willing to take Murasaki into their household, but Genji kidnaps her before Hyōbu can act. When Murasaki becomes Genji’s wife, Hyōbu is informed of his daughter’s fate and, for a while, his relationship with Murasaki seems good. Once Genji falls out of favor and is exiled however, Hyōbu cuts all ties with his daughter, a mistake which Genji will not forgive after he rises to the top of the political hierarchy.

• Elderly Lady (ja: 源典侍 Gen-no-tenji） – Although most likely in her late forties, the elderly lady still gains the favor of Genji. In The Tale of Genji she flirts with Genji, even though he knows any relationship with her would be inappropriate.

• Hitachi Princess (also Old Style Princess) – Because her nose is so big, the traditionally minded princess never shows her face in public. She is very shy. But,she excels at playing the zither, which is the reason that Genji becomes attracted to her.

• Lady Akashi – Born as a middle ranked noble, a love affair with Genji was not her own plan, but her father was insistent in getting them involved in a relationship. She gives a birth to a girl,the only daughter of Genji. She brings up her daughter (called Little Lady Akashi, later Empress Akashi) until the age of four, when Genji decides that Lady Murasaki should adopt the little girl. Lady Akashi is saddened, but gradually accepts the situation. Later, she meets her daughter again, now a court lady of the crown prince, and receives many honors as the birth mother of little Lady Akashi. She then receives a letter from her father about his fortune-telling dream. He writes the dream gave him a prediction that his granddaughter by Lady Akashi would become the empress, and he turned all his efforts to realize that prediction.

• Tamakazura – a daughter of Tō No Chūjō and a lady called Yugao, who was later a concubine of Genji. Tamakazura is adopted by Genji.She wants to meet her real father, who doesn't know she is still alive. Genji forms a salon for her admirers. He takes pleasure in watching young men compete for Tamakazura's favor. Her brother, sons of Tō No Chūjō, are involved, not knowing that she is his sister. Genji himself flirts her, just to see her reaction. Later, Tō No Chūjō and she meet again in the courtesy of Genji. Genji has an idea who to marry her to, but she is raped by a middle-aged courtier and becomes his wife instead.

Part II

• Kashiwagi – is the eldest son of Naidaijin (Tō No Chūjō in his youth) and best friend to Yūgiri. He has an affair with Genji's youngest wife, Onna san no miya (lit. the Third Princess), which results in the birth of Kaoru.

• Onna san no miya or Princess Nyosan (in Waley's translation) - is the beloved daughter of Emperor Suzaku and wife of Genji in his later years. She is a niece of late Empress Fujitsubo in her maternal lineage. As Genji's wife she is young and of unformed character and helplessly allowed Kashiwagi to force himself upon her. Their affair results in the birth of Kaoru.

Part III

• Kaoru - is the protagonist of Part III. Legally he is known as the son of Genji and Onna san no miya but his real father is the late Kashiwagi. Learning eventually this secret makes him not committing and lean to Buddhism. He falls in love to O no kimi in Uji, the first daughter of Hachinomiya, but she passed away. Kaoru fell in love later to Ukifune whose feature is quite similar to the late O no kimi, but he again loses his lover.

• Nio no miya (Prince the Perfumed) - Nio no miya is the third prince of the current Emperor by Empress Akashi, therefore a grandson of Genji. Nio no miya is the best friend to Kaoru. He is known a man of love affairs. He falls in love to Naka no kimi in Uji, the second daughter of Hachinomiya and the younger sister of O no kimi. Despite of oppositions, he made Naka no kimi a wife. He rapes Ukifune, her half-sister who eventually stayed at her, and this incident drives her to suicide.

• Ukifune - is an illegitimate daughter of Hachinomiya, the eighth prince of Emperor Kiritsubo. Her presence is almost not known by her father. She eventually meets her half-sister Naka no kimi, the second daughter of Hachinomiya, and now a wife of Nio no miya. When she stays at her sister, Nio no miya rapes her. Suffering sense of betrayal Ukifune decided to death and dives into Uji river. Her life is saved by a Buddhist monk priest who eventually passes there through. Ukifune decides to be a nun and refuses Kaoru who sends her brother as a messenger and tries to persuade her to come back to him.

Notes

• The Tale of Genji Summary Character section was used.

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See also

• Japanese literature
• Jūnihitoe
• sudare
• The Pillow Book
• Hagiwara Hiromichi's Appraisal of Genji (Genji monogatari hyõshaku)

External links

• Media related to The Tale of Genji at Wikimedia Commons
• The Tale of Genji 1976 Seidensticker translation Online text of complete 1976 Seidensticker translation without the notes and with numerous typos. (The illustrations included in the Knopf edition of this translation are reproduced at the UNESCO heritage site below.)
• Japanese Literature - Including Selections from Genji Monogatari and Classical Poetry and Drama of Japan Contains the 1882 Suematsu translation of the first 17 chapters of The Tale of Genji, with an introduction and notes.
• The Texts of Genji Monogatari Original text, romanized version, and modern Japanese translation of The Tale of Genji at the University of Virginia Library.
• Tale of the Genji woodcuts Woodcut illustrations and accompanying excerpts at the UNESCO Global Heritage Pavilion.
• Murasaki Shikibu: Genji monogatari (1987) An animated film based on The Tale of Genji.
• The Picture Scroll of The Tale of Genji Some scans of the Genji Monogatari Emaki (Tale of Genji Scroll). Only about half of the images are from the twelfth century scroll; they are the darker colored, more faded images.
• The Tale of Genji A photographic guide to The Tale of Genji.
• The Tale of Genji: Genealogical chart A family tree detailing the various relationships of the characters in The Tale of Genji.
• The Tale of Genji Audiobooks Japanese reading of 7 of 54 chapters from the original text, mp3 files.
• Japan Finance Minister Announces Kyoto Coin Design with The Tale of Genji Theme The Kyoto Prefecture commemorative coin set for release in October 2008 features a scene from The Tale of Genji.
• Carving of Picture Scroll of Genji monogatariPaper carvings by Noda Kazuko reproducing the 18 extant illutrations of the 13th century Genji monogatari emaki.
• Costume Museum: Fūzoku Hakubutsukan Dolls dressed in Heian fashion and placed in Heian-inspired interiors.
• Ohmi Gallery A nice collection of Ukiyo-e and Shin-hanga, including illustrations of The Tale of Genji by such artists as Ebina Masao and Utagawa Kunisada.
• Tale of Genji Scroll 18th century anonymous artist Available at Darmouth College, it covers the first 16 chapters of the tale.
• The Tale of Genji by Miyata Masayuki Paper cuts by renowned artist Miyata Masayuki.
• Kunisada II- Illustrations of The Tale of GenjiUniversity of Alberta Art& Artifact Collection. Utagawa Kunisada II Collection.