Sneferu

Snefru
Sneferu, Snofru, Soris
Statue of Sneferu, on display at the Egyptian Museum, Cairo.
Pharaoh of Egypt
Reign	2613–2589 BC, 29 years in Manetho,  4th Dynasty
Predecessor	Huni
Successor	Khufu
Royal titulary Nomen: Sneferu He of Beauty[1] Horus name: Neb-maat[2] Nebty name: Neb-maat-nebty[2] Golden Horus: Bik-nub[2]
Consort(s)	Hetepheres I
Children	Khufu, Ankhhaf, Netjeraperef (?), Ranefer (?), Kanefer (?), Iynefer (?), Rahotep (?), Nefermaat (?), Meritites I, Neferetkau, Neferetnesu (?)[3]
Father	Huni
Mother	Meresankh I
Died	2589 BC
Monuments	Bent Pyramid, Red Pyramid

Sneferu, also spelled as Snefru or Snofru (in Greek known as Soris), was the founder of the Fourth dynasty of Egypt, reigning from around 2613 BC to 2589 BC. He built at least three pyramids before his successors' construction of the Giza pyramids, and he was well known in Ancient Egyptian times though in modern times, his pyramids are not visited by as many tourists as the Pyramids at Giza.

Succession & Family

Sneferu was the first king marking the fourth dynasty of Ancient Egypt, who according to Manetho reigned for 29 years (2613-2589 BCE). Manetho was an Egyptian priest, living in the third century BCE, who categorized the pharaohs of dynastic Egypt into 31 dynasties.^[4] Manetho’s schematic has its flaws, nevertheless, modern scholars conventionally follow his method of grouping. The Papyrus Prisse, a Middle Kingdom source, supports the fact that King Huni was indeed Snefru’s predecessor. It states that “the majesty of the king of Upper and Lower Egypt, Huni, came to the landing place (i.e., died), and the majesty of the king of Upper and Lower Egypt, Snefru, was raised up as a beneficent king in this entire land…”^[5] Aside from Sneferu’s succession, we learn from this text that later generations considered him to be a “beneficent” ruler. This idea may stem from the etymology of the king’s name, for it can be interpreted as the infinitive “to make beautiful.”^[6] It is uncertain whether Huni was Sneferu’s father, however the Cairo Annals Stone denotes that his mother may have been a woman named Meresankh.^[7] Hetepheres I is considered most likely to have been Sneferu’s wife and mother of Khufu^[8], builder of the Great Pyramid on the Giza Plateau.

Sneferu's Building projects

The most dramatic features of Sneferu’s reign are the three pyramids that he allegedly built in Dahshur and Maidum. Ancient Egypt witnesses the evolution of the monumental pyramid structures under Sneferu, inevitably leading up to Khufu’s Great Pyramid, which can be seen as the pinnacle of the Egyptian Old Kingdom’s majesty and splendour, and as one of the Seven Wonders of the World even today.

The first of Sneferu’s massive undertakings is the Pyramid at Maidum. There is some debate among scholars as to Sneferu’s claim to the Maidum pyramid, and many accredit its origin to King Huni. Nonetheless, the pyramid is a remarkable example of the progression of technology and ideology surrounding the king’s burial site. The immense stone structure serves as physical testimony to transition from the stepped pyramid structure to that of a “true” pyramid structure. Archaeological investigation of the pyramid shows that it was first conceived as a seven-stepped structure, built in a similar manner to the Djoser complex at Saqqara. Modifications were later made to add another platform, and at an even later stage limestone facing was added to create the smooth, angled finish characteristic of a “true” pyramid.^[9] Complete with a descending northern passage, two underground chambers, and a burial vault, the pyramid mainly follows the conventions of previous tombs in most aspects other than one: as opposed to being situated underneath the colossal structure, the burial chamber is built directly within the main body albeit very near ground level.^[10]

The Bent Pyramid, also known as the Rhomboidal or Blunted Pyramid, attests to an even greater increase in architectural innovations. As the name suggests, the angle of the inclination changes from 55° to about 43° in the upper levels of the pyramid. It is likely that the pyramid was not initially designed to be built this way, but was modified during construction due to unstable accretion layers. As a means to stabilize the monolith, the top layers were laid horizontally, marking the abandonment of the step pyramid concept.^[11] The internal components of the Rhomboidal pyramid also evolve drastically. There are two entrances, one from the north and another from the west. The subterranean chambers are remarkably larger, and distinguished by corbel walls and ceilings with more complex diagonal portcullis systems in place. J.P Lepre asserts:

“It is apparent that with the interior design of the Bent Pyramid the

architect was groping and experimenting, taking maximum

advantage of the huge volume of the monument (50 million cubic

feet), the largest pyramid constructed to that date.”^[12]

The satellite pyramid complementing Sneferu’s Bent Pyramid introduces more change in the architecture of the time, when the passage way is built ascending westward (as opposed to the conventionally descending northward direction previous passages take) towards the burial chambers.^[13]

The Red Pyramid of Sneferu

With the increase of innovation in Sneferu’s building projects, one expects that his last pyramid, the Red Pyramid, will show the greatest complexity and change in architecture yet. Upon first glance, one may be disappointed seeing that the construction of the Red Pyramid is seemingly simpler than its predecessor. Lepre points out that some of the internal innovations that the previous pyramids boast seem to be missing in the king’s last monument; although the chambers and burial vaults are all present in the monument’s main body, no ascending passageway has been excavated, nor is there evidence of a western entrance or diagonal portcullis. Although the absence of these features have dissuaded many archaeologists from further studying the Red Pyramid, Lepre is convinced that there are secret chambers waiting to be uncovered within the stone superstructure. Considering that the remains of King Sneferu have not yet been found, it may still be possible that his sarcophagus and mummy lie hidden in his mysterious last structure. Lepre claims: “the Red pyramid remains one of the chief pyramids that may possibly contain secret chambers, not the least of which may be the true burial chamber of King Sneferu himself.” ^[14] Whether or not this conjecture is true is left to modern archaeologists to determine.

Sneferu’s architectural innovations served as a catalyst for later pyramid builders to thrive on. The first king of the fourth dynasty set a difficult precedent for his predecessors to match, and only Khufu’s Great Pyramid can rival Sneferu’s accomplishment. As time progressed and ideology changed in Archaic Egypt, the monuments of the kings decreased greatly in size. The pyramid of Menkaure being only a fraction of the size of the previous pyramids, the focus of Egyptian ideology might have shifted from the worship of the king to the direct worship of the sun god, Ra.^[15]

Foreign Relations

In order for Sneferu to undertake such massive building projects, he would have to secure an extensive store of resources. According to Guillemette Andreu, this is where the king’s foreign policy played a large part. Sneferu’s conquests into Libya and Nubia served a two fold nature; the first goal was to establish an extensive labour force, and the second goal was to gain access to the raw materials and special products that Africa offered.^[16] This is alluded to in the Palermo Stone:

“[Reign of] Seneferu. Year ...

The building of Tuataua ships of mer wood

of a hundred capacity, and 60 royal boats of sixteen capacity.

Raid in the Land of the Blacks, and the bringing in of seven thousand

prisoners, men and women, and twenty thousand cattle, sheep, and

goats…

The bringing of forty ships of cedar wood (or perhaps "laden with cedar

wood")…”^[17]

According to this inscription, Sneferu was capable of seizing immense groups of prisoners in order to integrate them into his labour force including their cattle for the sustenance of the people. Such incursions must have been incredibly devastating to the populations of the raided countries, and it is suggested that the campaigns into Nubia may have contributed to the dissemination of the A group culture of that region. Military efforts in Libya allegedly won Snefru 11,000 prisoners and 13,100 heads of cattle.^[18] Aside from the extensive import of cedar (most likely from Lebanon) described above, there is evidence of activity in the turquoise mines on the Sinai Peninsula.^[19] Adding to this the large-scale quarrying projects that would have provided Sneferu with stone for his pyramids,it can be seen that the extent of the ruler’s power must have been universal over his kingdom and subjects during the dawn of the fourth dynasty. Sneferu’s apparent command over human and natural resources is a phenomenon rarely attested to rulers over the course of human history.

Notes

References

Andreu, Guillemette. Egypt in the Age of the Pyramids. Cornell University Press: Ithaca, 1997.

Bard, A. Kathryn. An Introduction to the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt. Blackwell Publishing Ltd: Malden, 2008.

Budge, Wallis. The Literature of the Ancient Egyptians. The Project Gutenberg. November 16, 2008 http://www.gutenberg.org/files/15932/15932-h/15932-h.htm#Pg_100

Lepre, J.P. The Egyptian Pyramids, A Comprehensive Illustrated Reference. McFarland & Company: London, 1990.

The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt. Ed. Aidan Dodson & Dylan Hilton. Thames and Hudson Ltd: London, 2004.

“The Instruction of Kagemni.” Ancient Egyptian Books of Wisdom. November 16th 2008, http://egypt.thetao.info/kagemni.htm

The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Ed. Ian Shaw. Oxford University Press: Oxford, 2000

Notable ancient Egyptian rulers Early Dynastic rulers Narmer · Hor-Aha · Djer · Khasekhemwy Old Kingdom rulers Djoser · Sneferu · Khufu · Khafra · Menkaura · Sahure · Pepi II Middle Kingdom rulers Mentuhotep II · Amenemhat I · Senusret I · Senusret III · Amenemhat III · Sobekneferu Second Intermediate rulers Khendjer · Neferhotep I · Sobekhotep IV · Ay · Nebiriau I · Apophis · Sobekemsaf II · Intef VII · Seqenenre · Kamose New Kingdom rulers Ahmose I · Hatshepsut · Thutmose III · Amenhotep III · Akhenaten · Tutankhamun · Seti I · Ramesses II · Ramesses III Third Intermediate rulers Psusennes I · Siamun · Shoshenq I · Osorkon II · Shoshenq III · Osorkon III · Piye · Tefnakht · Shabaka · Taharqa Other rulers Psamtik I · Necho II · Ahmose II · Nepherites I · Nectanebo I · Ptolemy I · Ptolemy II · Ptolemy XIII · Cleopatra VII Consorts Tetisheri · Ahhotep I · Ahmose-Nefertari · Ahmose · Tiye · Nefertiti · Ankhesenamen · Nefertari · Mark Antony Court officials Imhotep · Weni · Sobeknakht II · Ahmose-Ebana · Ineni · Senenmut · Rekhmire · Yuya · Maya · Yuny · Bay · Manetho · Pothinus