Pandemic

A pandemic (from Greek παν pan all + δήμος demos people) is an epidemic of infectious disease that spreads through populations across a large region; for instance a continent, or even worldwide.

Contents

Definition

According to the World Health Organization (WHO), a pandemic can start when three conditions have been met:

A disease or condition is not a pandemic merely because it is widespread or kills many people; it must also be infectious. For instance, cancer is responsible for many deaths but is not considered a pandemic, because the disease is not infectious or contagious.

Pandemics and notable epidemics through history

There have been a number of significant pandemics recorded in human history, generally zoonoses which came about with domestication of animals, such as influenza and tuberculosis. There have been a number of particularly significant epidemics that deserve mention above the "mere" destruction of cities:

Cholera

Influenza

Main article: Influenza pandemic

Typhus

Typhus is sometimes called "camp fever" because of its pattern of flaring up in times of strife. (It is also known as "gaol fever" and "ship fever", for its habits of spreading wildly in cramped quarters, such as jails and ships.) Emerging during the Crusades, it had its first impact in Europe in 1489, in Spain. During fighting between the Christian Spaniards and the Muslims in Granada, the Spanish lost 3,000 to war casualties, and 20,000 to typhus. In 1528, the French lost 18,000 troops in Italy, and lost supremacy in Italy to the Spanish. In 1542, 30,000 people died of typhus while fighting the Ottomans in the Balkans.

In the Thirty Years' War, an estimated 8 million Germans were wiped out by bubonic plague and typhus fever.[21] The disease also played a major role in the destruction of Napoleon's Grande Armée in Russia in 1812. Typhus played a major factor in the Irish Potato Famine. During the World War I, typhus epidemics have killed 150,000 in Serbia. There were about 30 million infections and 3 million deaths from epidemic typhus in Russia from 1918 to 1922. Typhus also killed numerous prisoners in the Nazi concentration camps and Soviet prisoner of war camps during World War II.

HIV and AIDS

Main article: AIDS pandemic

HIV, the virus that causes AIDS, is currently a pandemic, with infection rates as high as 25% in southern and eastern Africa. Effective education about safer sexual practices and bloodborne infection precautions training have helped to slow down infection rates in several African countries sponsoring national education programs. Infection rates are rising again in Asia and the Americas. AIDS death toll in Africa may reach 90-100 million by 2025.[22][23]

Effects of colonization

See also: Globalization and disease

Encounters between European explorers and populations in the rest of the world often introduced local epidemics of extraordinary virulence. Disease killed the entire native (Guanches) population of the Canary Islands in the 16th century. Half the native population of Hispaniola in 1518 was killed by smallpox. Smallpox also ravaged Mexico in the 1520s, killing 150,000 in Tenochtitlán alone, including the emperor, and Peru in the 1530s, aiding the European conquerors.[24] Measles killed a further two million Mexican natives in the 1600s. In 1618–1619, smallpox wiped out 90% of the Massachusetts Bay Native Americans.[25] Smallpox epidemics in 1780–1782 and 1837–1838 brought devastation and drastic depopulation among the Plains Indians.[26] Some believe that the death of up to 95% of the Native American population of the New World was caused by Old World diseases.[27] Over the centuries, the Europeans had developed high degrees of immunity to these diseases, while the indigenous peoples had no such immunity.[28]

Smallpox decimated the native population of Australia, killing around 50% of Indigenous Australians in the early years of British colonisation.[29] It also killed many New Zealand Māori.[30] As late as 1848–49, as many as 40,000 out of 150,000 Hawaiians are estimated to have died of measles, whooping cough and influenza. Introduced diseases, notably smallpox, nearly wiped out the native population of Easter Island.[31] In 1875, measles killed over 40,000 Fijians, approximately one-third of the population.[32] Ainu population decreased drastically in the 19th century, due in large part to infectious diseases brought by Japanese settlers pouring into Hokkaido.[33]

Researchers concluded that syphilis was carried from the New World to Europe after Columbus' voyages. The findings suggested Europeans could have carried the nonvenereal tropical bacteria home, where the organisms may have mutated into a more deadly form in the different conditions of Europe.[34] The disease was more frequently fatal than it is today. Syphilis was a major killer in Europe during the Renaissance.[35]

As early as 1803, the Spanish Crown organized a mission (the Balmis expedition) to transport the smallpox vaccine to the Spanish colonies, and establish mass vaccination programs there.[36] By 1832, the federal government of the United States established a smallpox vaccination program for Native Americans.[37] From the beginning of the 20th century onwards, the elimination or control of disease in tropical countries became a driving force for all colonial powers.[38] The sleeping sickness epidemic in Africa was arrested due to mobile teams systematically screening millions of people at risk.[39] In the 20th century, the world saw the biggest increase in its population in human history due to lessening of the mortality rate in many countries due to medical advances.[40] World population has grown from 1.6 billion in 1900 to an estimated 6.7 billion today.[41]

Unknown causes

There are also a number of unknown diseases that were extremely serious but have now vanished, so the etiology of these diseases cannot be established. The cause of English Sweat in 16th-century England, which struck people down in an instant and was more greatly feared than even the bubonic plague, is still unknown.

Unit 731

During the Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945), Unit 731 of the Imperial Japanese Army conducted human experimentation on thousands, mostly Chinese. In military campaigns, the Japanese army used biological weapons on Chinese soldiers and civilians. Plague fleas, infected clothing, and infected supplies encased in bombs were dropped on various targets. The resulting cholera, anthrax, and plague were estimated to have killed around 400,000 Chinese civilians.[42]

Concern about possible future pandemics

Ebola virus and other quickly lethal diseases

Lassa fever, Rift Valley fever, Marburg virus, Ebola virus and Bolivian hemorrhagic fever are highly contagious and deadly diseases, with the theoretical potential to become pandemics. Their ability to spread efficiently enough to cause a pandemic is limited, however, as transmission of these viruses requires close contact with the infected vector, and the vector only has a short time before death or serious illness. Furthermore, the short time between a vector becoming infectious and the onset of symptoms allows medical professionals to quickly quarantine vectors, and prevent them from carrying the pathogen elsewhere. Genetic mutations could occur, which could elevate their potential for causing widespread harm; thus close observation by contagious disease specialists is merited.

Antibiotic resistance

Antibiotic-resistant microorganisms, sometimes referred to as "superbugs", may contribute to the re-emergence of diseases which are currently well-controlled. For example, cases of tuberculosis that are resistant to traditionally effective treatments remain a cause of great concern to health professionals. The World Health Organization (WHO) reports that approximately 50 million people worldwide are infected with multiple-drug resistant tuberculosis (MDR TB), with 79 percent of those cases resistant to three or more antibiotics. In 2005, 124 cases of MDR TB were reported in the United States. Extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis (XDR TB) was identified in Africa in 2006, and subsequently discovered to exist in 17 countries, including the United States.

The plague bacterium could easily develop drug-resistance and become a major health threat.[43] Plague epidemics have occurred throughout human history, causing over 200 million deaths worldwide. The ability to resist many of the antibiotics used against plague has been found so far in only a single case of the disease in Madagascar.[44]

In the past 20 years, common bacteria including Staphylococcus aureus, Serratia marcescens and Enterococcus, have developed resistance to various antibiotics such as vancomycin, as well as whole classes of antibiotics, such as the aminoglycosides and cephalosporins. Antibiotic-resistant organisms have become an important cause of healthcare-associated (nosocomial) infections (HAI). In addition, infections caused by community-acquired strains of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) in otherwise healthy individuals, have become more frequent in recent years.

SARS

In 2003, there were concerns that SARS, a new, highly contagious form of atypical pneumonia caused by a coronavirus dubbed SARS-CoV, might become pandemic. Rapid action by national and international health authorities such as the World Health Organization helped slow transmission, and eventually broke the chain of transmission, ending the localized epidemics before they could become a pandemic. The disease has not been eradicated, however, and could re-emerge unexpectedly, warranting monitoring and case reporting of suspicious cases of atypical pneumonia.

Influenza

Main article: Influenza pandemic

Wild aquatic birds are the natural hosts for a range of influenza A viruses. Occasionally, viruses are transmitted from these species to other species, and may then cause outbreaks in domestic poultry or (rarely) give rise to a human pandemic. [45] [46]

H5N1

Main article: H5N1

In February 2004, avian influenza virus was detected in birds in Vietnam, increasing fears of the emergence of new variant strains. It is feared that if the avian influenza virus combines with a human influenza virus (in a bird or a human), the new subtype created could be both highly contagious and highly lethal in humans. Such a subtype could cause a global influenza pandemic, similar to the Spanish Flu, or the lower mortality pandemics such as the Asian Flu and the Hong Kong Flu.

From October 2004 to February 2005, some 3,700 test kits of the 1957 Asian Flu virus were accidentally spread around the world from a lab in the US[2].

In May 2005, scientists urgently call nations to prepare for a global influenza pandemic that could strike as much as 20% of the world's population.

In October 2005, cases of the avian flu (the deadly strain H5N1) were identified in Turkey. EU Health Commissioner Markos Kyprianou said: "We have received now confirmation that the virus found in Turkey is an avian flu H5N1 virus. There is a direct relationship with viruses found in Russia, Mongolia and China." Cases of bird flu were also identified shortly thereafter in Romania, and then Greece. Possible cases of the virus have also been found in Croatia, Bulgaria and the United Kingdom [3].

By November 2007, numerous confirmed cases of the H5N1 strain had been identified across Europe [4]. However, by the end of October only 59 people had died as a result of H5N1 which was atypical of previous influenza pandemics.

Avian flu cannot yet be categorized as a "pandemic", because the virus cannot yet cause sustained and efficient human-to-human transmission. Cases so far are recognized to have been transmitted from bird to human, but as of December 2006 there have been very few (if any) cases of proven human-to-human transmission. Regular influenza viruses establish infection by attaching to receptors in the throat and lungs, but the avian influenza virus can only attach to receptors located deep in the lungs of humans, requiring close, prolonged contact with infected patients, and thus limiting person-to-person transmission. The current WHO phase of pandemic alert is level 3, described as "no or very limited human-to-human transmission", according to the WHO website.

See also

References

Notes

  1. [1]
  2. Cambridge Catalogue page "Plague and the End of Antiquity"
  3. Quotes from book "Plague and the End of Antiquity" Lester K. Little, ed., Plague and the End of Antiquity: The Pandemic of 541-750, Cambridge, 2006. ISBN 0-521-84639-0
  4. The History of the Bubonic Plague
  5. Death on a Grand Scale
  6. Plague - LoveToKnow 1911
  7. Cholera- Biological Weapons
  8. The 1832 Cholera Epidemic in New York State
  9. Asiatic Cholera Pandemic of 1826-37
  10. The Cholera Epidemic Years in the United States
  11. Cholera's seven pandemics, cbc.ca, December 2, 2008
  12. Eastern European Plagues and Epidemics 1300-1918
  13. Cholera - LoveToKnow 1911
  14. "The cholera in Spain", New York Times (1890-06-20). Retrieved on 2008-12-08. 
  15. Barry, John M. (2004). The Great Influenza: The Epic Story of the Greatest Plague in History. Viking Penguin. ISBN 0-670-89473-7. 
  16. [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/114078/cholera/253250/Seven-pandemics cholera :: Seven pandemics], Britannica Online Encyclopedia
  17. Beveridge, W.I.B. (1977) Influenza: The Last Great Plague: An Unfinished Story of Discovery, New York: Prodist. ISBN 0-88202-118-4.
  18. Potter, C.W. (October 2001). "A History of Influenza". Journal of Applied Microbiology 91 (4): 572–579. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2672.2001.01492.x. http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1046/j.1365-2672.2001.01492.x. Retrieved on 2006-08-20. 
  19. Spanish flu, ScienceDaily
  20. Pandemics and Pandemic Threats since 1900, U.S. Department of Health & Human Services
  21. War and Pestilence, TIME
  22. Aids could kill 90 million Africans, says UN
  23. AIDS Toll May Reach 100 Million in Africa, Washington Post
  24. Smallpox: Eradicating the Scourge
  25. Smallpox The Fight to Eradicate a Global Scourge, David A. Koplow
  26. "The first smallpox epidemic on the Canadian Plains: In the fur-traders' words", National Institutes of Health
  27. The Story Of... Smallpox – and other Deadly Eurasian Germs
  28. Stacy Goodling, "Effects of European Diseases on the Inhabitants of the New World"
  29. Smallpox Through History
  30. New Zealand Historical Perspective
  31. How did Easter Island's ancient statues lead to the destruction of an entire ecosystem?, The Independent
  32. Fiji School of Medicine
  33. Meeting the First Inhabitants, TIMEasia.com, 8/21/2000
  34. Genetic Study Bolsters Columbus Link to Syphilis, New York Times, January 15, 2008
  35. Columbus May Have Brought Syphilis to Europe, LiveScience
  36. Dr. Francisco de Balmis and his Mission of Mercy, Society of Philippine Heath History
  37. Lewis Cass and the Politics of Disease: The Indian Vaccination Act of 1832
  38. Conquest and Disease or Colonialism and Health?, Gresham College | Lectures and Events
  39. WHO Media centre (2001). "Fact sheet N°259: African trypanosomiasis or sleeping sickness".
  40. The Origins of African Population Growth, by John Iliffe, The Journal of African HistoryVol. 30, No. 1 (1989), pp. 165-169
  41. World Population Clock - Worldometers
  42. Christopher Hudson (2 March 2007). "Doctors of Depravity", Daily Mail. 
  43. Drug-resistant plague a 'major threat', say scientists, SciDev.Net
  44. Researchers sound the alarm: the multidrug resistance of the plague bacillus could spread, pasteur.fr
  45. Klenk et al (2008). "Avian Influenza: Molecular Mechanisms of Pathogenesis and Host Range". Animal Viruses: Molecular Biology. Caister Academic Press. ISBN 978-1-904455-22-6. 
  46. Kawaoka Y (editor). (2006). Influenza Virology: Current Topics. Caister Academic Press. ISBN 978-1-904455-06-6. http://www.horizonpress.com/flu. 

Bibliography

Further reading

  • Steward's "The Next Global Threat: Pandemic Influenza".
  • American Lung Association. (2007, April), Multidrug Resistant Tuberculosis Fact Sheet. As retrieved from www.lungusa.org/site/pp.aspx?c=dvLUK9O0E&b=35815 November 29, 2007.
  • Larson, E. (2007). Community Factors in the Development of Antibiotic Resistance. [Electronic Version]. Annual Review of Public Health. 28 pp. 437-447. As accessed November 29, 2007.
  • Bancroft, E. A., (2007, October). Antimicrobial Resistance It's Not Just for Hospitals. [Electronic Version]. JAMA 298(15) pp. 1803-1804. As accessed November 29, 2007.

External links