Mango

Mango
Immature Black Mango fruit
Immature Black Mango fruit
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Plantae
(unranked): Angiosperms
(unranked): Eudicots
(unranked): Rosids
Order: Sapindales
Family: Anacardiaceae
Genus: Mangifera
L.
Species

More than 50 species; see listing

Mangoes belong to the genus Mangifera, consisting of numerous species of tropical fruiting trees in the flowering plant family Anacardiaceae. The mango is indigenous to the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia.[1] Cultivated in many tropical regions and distributed widely in the world, mango is one of the most extensively exploited fruits for food, juice, flavor, fragrance and color, making it a common ingredient in new functional foods often called superfruits. Its leaves are ritually used as floral decorations at weddings and religious ceremonies.

Contents

Etymology

The name mango is ultimately either from the Kodagu mange, the Malayalam manga, or the Tamil mangai, and was loaned into Portuguese in the early 16th century, and from Portuguese passed into English. The ending in -o appears in English and is of unclear origin.[2]

Description

Mango flowers
Reole mangoes from Venezuela ("bocao" variety) with a pear to compare sizes

Mango trees (Mangifera indica) reach 35-40 m in height, with a crown radius of 10 m. The leaves are evergreen, alternate, simple, 15-35 cm long and 6-16 cm broad; when the leaves are young they are orange-pink, rapidly changing to a dark glossy red, then dark green as they mature. The flowers are produced in terminal panicles 10-40 cm long; each flower is small and white with five petals 5-10 mm long, with a mild sweet odor suggestive of lily of the valley. The fruit takes from three to six months to ripen.

Riped Banganpalli mangoes from Guntur, India

The ripe fruit is variable in size and color, and may be yellow, orange, red or green when ripe, depending on the cultivar. When ripe, the unpeeled fruit gives off a distinctive resinous sweet smell. In its center is a single flat oblong seed that can be fibrous or hairy on the surface, depending on the cultivar. Inside the seed coat 1-2 mm thick is a thin lining covering a single embryo, 4-7 cm long, 3-4 cm wide, and 1 cm thick.

Cultivation and uses

Mango tree with flowers

Mangoes have been cultivated in the Indian subcontinent for thousands of years[3] and reached East Asia between the 5th-4th century BC. By the 10th century AD, they were transported to East Africa[3] and subsequently introduced to Brazil, West Indies and Mexico, where climate allows its appropriate growth.[3] The 14th century Muslim traveler, Ibn Battuta, reported it at Mogadishu.[4]

Mango is now cultivated as a fruit tree in frost-free tropical and warmer subtropical climates like that of the Indian subcontinent; nearly half of the world's mangoes are cultivated in India alone.[5][6][7]

Other regions where mango is cultivated include North, South and Central America, the Caribbean, south and central Africa, Australia, China, and Southeast Asia. It is easily cultivated yielding more than 1,000 cultivars, ranging from the "turpentine mango" (named for its strong taste of turpentine, which according to the Oxford Companion to Food some varieties actually contain) to the huevos de toro ("eggs of the bull", a euphemism for "bull's testicles", referring to the shape and size).

Nicknamed "king of mangoes", the Alphonso grown mainly in India and favored there, is now popular in the United States.[8][9]

Although a popular fruit around the world, many mango farmers receive a low price for their produce. Though India is the largest producer of mangoes in the world, it accounts for less than one percent of the global mango trade because Indian farmers have little access to foreign markets.[10] This has led to mangoes being available as a fair trade item in some countries, although only 10% of the increased price actually reaches farmers, who in turn only sell their low-quality products to fair trade, since they can get a better price for the normal and high quality products on the market. [11]

Dwarf or semi-dwarf varieties serve as ornamental plants and can be grown in containers.

Diseases

Main article: List of mango diseases

Food

A ripe mango is sweet, with a unique taste. The texture of the flesh varies between cultivars, some having a soft, pulpy texture similar to an over-ripe plum, while others have firmer flesh like a cantaloupe or avocado. In some cultivars, the flesh has a fibrous texture.

A pack of amchur (or dry mango) powder in India.

Mangoes are used in chutney; Western recipes are often sweet and so use ripe mangoes, but in the Indian subcontinent is usually made with sour, unripe mangoes and hot chilis or limes. In India, ripe mango is often cut into thin layers, desiccated, folded, and then cut. These bars, known as amavat or halva in Hindi, are similar to dried guava fruit bars available in Colombia. In many parts of India, people eat squeezed mango juice (called Ras) on variety of bread items and is part of the meal rather than a dessert. Unripe mangoes (which are extremely sour) are eaten with salt, and in regions where food is hotter, with salt and chili.

In Kerala, ripe mango are used in a dish called mambazha kaalan.

In Maharashtra , Muramba (a kind of preserve, made from jaggery and mango) and Aamrus (Pulp/Thick Juice made of mangoes, with a bit of sugar if needed and milk at times)is famous. They Can be enjoyed with poories and polies, like jam.

The fruit is also used in a variety of cereal products, in particular muesli and oat granola.

In the Philippines, unripe mango is eaten with bagoong. Dried strips of sweet, ripe mango are also popular, with those from Cebu exported worldwide. Guimaras produces a delicious mango.

Freshly harvested mangoes and bananas at a fruit stand on the island of Maui, Hawaii

In Mexico, mango is used to make juices, smoothies, ice cream, fruit bars, raspados, aguas frescas, pies and sweet chili sauce, or mixed with chamoy, a sweet and spicy chili paste. It is popular on a stick or also as a main ingredient in fresh fruit combinations.

Pieces of mango can be mashed and used as a topping on ice cream or blended with milk and ice as milkshakes. In Thailand and other South East Asian countries, sweet glutinous rice is flavored with coconut then served with sliced mango as a dessert.

In other parts of South-east Asia, mangoes are pickled with fish sauce and rice vinegar.

Dried unripe mango is known as amchur (sometimes spelled amchoor) in India and ambi in Urdu. Amb is a Sindhi, Aamba is a Marathi and aam is a Hindi/Urdu/Punjabi word for mango.

The sweet bell pepper (capsicum) was once known as mango in parts of the United States.[12]

Nutrient and antioxidant properties

Mango is rich in a variety of phytochemicals and nutrients that qualify it as a model "superfruit", a term used to highlight potential health value of certain edible fruits. The fruit is high in prebiotic dietary fiber, vitamin C, polyphenols and carotenoids.[13]

Mango contains essential vitamins and dietary minerals. The antioxidant vitamins A, C and E comprise 25%, 76% and 9% of the Dietary Reference Intake (DRI) in a 165 g serving. Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine, 11% DRI), vitamin K (9% DRI), other B vitamins and essential nutrients such as potassium, copper and 17 amino acids are at good levels. Mango peel and pulp contain other phytonutrients, such as the pigment antioxidants - carotenoids and polyphenols - and omega-3 and -6 polyunsaturated fatty acids.

The edible mango peel has considerable value as a source of dietary fiber and antioxidant pigments[14].[15][16] Contained within the peel and pulp are rich contents of polysaccharides as fiber sources, especially starch and pectins.[17][18]

Antioxidants of the peel and pulp include carotenoids, such as the provitamin A compound, beta-carotene, lutein and alpha-carotene,[19] polyphenols[20][21] such as quercetin, kaempferol, gallic acid, caffeic acid, catechins, tannins, and the unique mango xanthone, mangiferin,[22] any of which may counteract free radicals in various disease mechanisms as revealed in preliminary research.[23][24] Contents of these phytochemicals and nutrients appear to vary across different mango species.[25] Up to 25 different carotenoids have been isolated from mango pulp, the densest content for which was beta-carotene accounting for the yellow-orange pigmentation of most mango species.[26] Peel and leaves also have significant content of polyphenols, including xanthones, mangiferin and gallic acid.[27]

The mango triterpene, lupeol[28] is an effective inhibitor in laboratory models of prostate and skin cancers[29].[30][31] An extract of mango branch bark called Vimang, isolated by Cuban scientists, contains numerous polyphenols with antioxidant properties in vitro[32] and on blood parameters of elderly humans.[33]

The pigment euxanthin, known as Indian yellow, is often thought to be produced from the urine of cows fed mango leaves; the practice is described as having been outlawed in 1908 due to malnutrition of the cows and possible urushiol poisoning.[34] One author[35] claims these descriptions of the pigment's origin rely on a single anecdotal source and Indian legal records do not mention such a practice being outlawed.

Mango, raw
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy 70 kcal   270 kJ
Carbohydrates     17.00 g
- Sugars  14.8 g
- Dietary fiber  1.8 g  
Fat 0.27 g
Protein .51 g
Vitamin A equiv.  38 μg  4%
- β-carotene  445 μg  4%
Thiamin (Vit. B1)  0.058 mg   4%
Riboflavin (Vit. B2)  0.057 mg   4%
Niacin (Vit. B3)  0.584 mg   4%
Pantothenic acid (B5)  0.160 mg  3%
Vitamin B6  0.134 mg 10%
Folate (Vit. B9)  14 μg  4%
Vitamin C  27.7 mg 46%
Calcium  10 mg 1%
Iron  0.13 mg 1%
Magnesium  9 mg 2% 
Phosphorus  11 mg 2%
Potassium  156 mg   3%
Zinc  0.04 mg 0%
Percentages are relative to US
recommendations for adults.
Source: USDA Nutrient database

Nutrient data in the text are for a 165 g serving as presented by Nutritiondata.com whereas the table presents data for a 100 g serving.

Production and consumption

Banganpalli mangoes sold at Guntur, India

Mangoes account for approximately fifty percent of all tropical fruits produced worldwide. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations estimates worldwide production of mangoes at more than 23 million tons in 2001.[5] With 12 million tons produced annually (2002-3 data), India[6] accounts for almost half of the world production, followed by China (3 million tons), Mexico (1.5 million tons) and Thailand (1.35 million tons). The aggregate production of 10 countries is responsible for roughly 80% of the entire world mango production.

A mango cut using the "hedgehog" method

Alphonso, Benishan or Benishaan (Banganpalli in Telugu and Tamil) and Kesar mango varieties are considered among the best mangoes in the Southern states whereas Dussehri and Langda varieties are most popular in the Northern states of India. Commonly exported, the Alphonso cultivar is grown exclusively in the Konkan region of Maharashtra. Alphonso is named after Afonso De Albuquerque who reputedly brought the drupe on his journeys to Goa. The locals took to calling this Aphoos in Konkani and in Maharashtra the pronunciation got further corrupted to Hapoos. This variety then was taken to the Konkan region of Maharashtra and other parts of India. Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka states in the south, Gujarat in western India, and Uttar Pradesh and Bihar in the north are major producers of mangoes harvested especially to make spicy mango pickles having regional differences in taste. In Pakistan the popular mangoes are the Sindhri and Chaunsa. The Sindhri mango is primarily produced in the province of Sindh and can measure up to half a foot in length. It is generally considered one of the best mangoes in the world.

Generally, once ripe, mangoes have an orange-yellow or reddish peel and are juicy for eating while those intended for export are often picked while under-ripe with green peels. Although producing ethylene while ripening, unripened exported mangoes do not have the same juiciness or flavor as fresh fruit.

A woman selling mangoes in Venezuela
Native green mangoes from the Philippines

Mangoes are popular throughout Latin America. In Mexico, sliced mango is eaten with chili powder and/or salt. Street vendors sometimes sell whole mangoes on a stick, dipped in the chili-salt mixture. In Indonesia, green mango is sold by street vendors with sugar and salt and/or chili, or used in a sour salad called rujak or rojak in Malaysia and Singapore. Ayurveda considers ripe mango sweet and heating, balancing all three doshas (humors), while also providing energy. Powdered raw mango is sometimes a condiment in various cuisines.

Like other drupaceous fruits, mangoes come in both freestone and clingstone varieties.

Area harvested of mangoes by country as of 2007[36]:

  1. India : 2,143,000 hectares
  2. China : 445,000 hectares
  3. Thailand : 285,000 hectares
  4. Indonesia : 266,000 hectares
  5. Pakistan : 215,000 hectares
  6. Mexico : 200,000 hectares
  7. Philippines : 181,000 hectares
  8. Nigeria : 126,500 hectares
  9. Brazil : 89,800 hectares
  10. Guinea : 82,000 hectares
  11. Viet Nam : 52,000 hectares
  12. Bangladesh : 51,000 hectares

India produces more than 40% of overall mangoes produced around the world followed by China(~11%) and Pakistan(~7%).

Top Ten Mangoes Producers — 2007
Country Production (Tonnes) Footnote
Flag of India.svg India 13501000
Flag of the People's Republic of China.svg People's Republic of China 3752000 F
Flag of Pakistan.svg Pakistan 2250000 F
Flag of Mexico.svg Mexico 2050000 F
Flag of Thailand.svg Thailand 1800000 F
Flag of Indonesia.svg Indonesia 1620000 F
Flag of Brazil.svg Brazil 1546000 F
Flag of the Philippines.svg Philippines 975000 F
Flag of Nigeria.svg Nigeria 734000 F
Flag of Vietnam.svg Vietnam 370000 F
Newworldmap.svg World 33445279 A
No symbol = official figure, P = official figure, F = FAO estimate, * = Unofficial/Semi-official/mirror data, C = Calculated figure A = Aggregate(may include official, semi-official or estimates);

Source: Food And Agricultural Organization of United Nations: Economic And Social Department: The Statistical Devision


Cultivars

Main article: List of mango cultivars

Many hundreds of named mango cultivars exist. In mango orchards, several cultivars are often intermixed to improve cross-pollination.

A common cultivar is Alphonso known in Asia under its original name, Hapoos. Popular outside the Indian subcontinent, Alphonso is an important export product.

Other popular cultivars are mentioned in the list (link above).

Cultivars excelling in one climate may fail to achieve elsewhere. For example, the cultivar Julie, a Jamaican favorite, and Alphonso have not been successfully grown in Florida.

The current world market is dominated by the cultivar Tommy Atkins, a seedling of Haden which first fruited in 1940 in southern Florida, USA. Despite being initially rejected commercially by Florida researchers, Tommy Atkins is now a favorite worldwide. For example, 80% of mangoes in UK supermarkets are Tommy Atkins. Despite its fibrous flesh and fair taste, growers worldwide have embraced the cultivar for its exceptional production and disease resistance, the shelf-life of its fruit, their transportability as well as size and appealing color. Tommy Atkins is predominant in the USA as well, although other cultivars, such Kent, Keitt, the Haitian grown Madame Francis and the Mexican grown Champagne are widely available.

In urban areas of southern Florida, small gardens, or lack thereof, have fueled the desire for dwarf mango trees. The Fairchild Tropical Botanic Garden has promoted "condo mangoes" which produce at a height below 2-2.5 m.

A list of additional leading cultivars can be found at the cultivar list in the external links below.

There is an Australian variety of mango known as R2E2, a name based on the orchard row location of the original plant.

Species

There are many species of mango, including:

  • Mangifera acutigemma
  • Mangifera altissima
  • Mangifera andamanica
  • Mangifera applanata
  • Mangifera austro-indica
  • Mangifera austro-yunnanensis
  • Mangifera blommesteinii
  • Mangifera bullata
  • Mangifera caesia
  • Mangifera camptosperma
  • Mangifera campnospermoides
  • Mangifera casturi
  • Mangifera collina
  • Mangifera decandra'
  • Mangifera dewildei
  • Mangifera dongnaiensis
  • Mangifera flava
  • Mangifera foetida
  • Mangifera gedebe
  • Mangifera gracilipes
  • Mangifera griffithii
  • Mangifera hiemalis
  • Mangifera indica
  • Mangifera kemanga
  • Mangifera lalijiwa
  • Mangifera laurina
  • Mangifera longipes
  • Mangifera macrocarpa
  • Mangifera magnifica
  • Mangifera mekongensis
  • Mangifera minutifolia
  • Mangifera monandra
  • Mangifera nicobarica
  • Mangifera odorata
  • Mangifera orophila
  • Mangifera pajang
  • Mangifera paludosa
  • Mangifera parvifolia
  • Mangifera pedicellata
  • Mangifera pentandra
  • Mangifera persiciformis
  • Mangifera quadrifida
  • Mangifera rubropetala
  • Mangifera rufocostata
  • Mangifera siamensis
  • Mangifera similis
  • Mangifera sumbawaensis
  • Mangifera superba
  • Mangifera swintonioides
  • Mangifera sylvatica
  • Mangifera taipa
  • Mangifera torquenda
  • Mangifera transversalis
  • Mangifera zeylanica

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ Mango: botany and taxonomy, HorticultureWorld
  2. ↑ Oxford English Dictionary mango, n. 1
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 Ensminger 1994: 1373
  4. ↑ Watson, Andrew J. (1983). Agricultural innovation in the early Islamic world: the diffusion of crops and farming techniques, 700-1100. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 72–3. ISBN 0-521-24711-X. 
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Jedele S, Hau AM, von Oppen M. An analysis of the world market for mangoes and its importance for developing countries. Conference on International Agricultural Research for Development, 2003[1]
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 India world's largest producer of mangoes, Rediff India Abroad, April 21, 2004
  7. ↑ Mad About mangoes: As exports to the U.S. resume, a juicy business opportunity ripens, India Knowledge@Wharton Network, June 14, 2007
  8. ↑ Allen J. Mango mania in India, New York Times, May 10, 2006
  9. ↑ Black R. Plump it up. Sweet, juicy mangoes are at their peak, with seasonal varieties ripe for the picking, New York Daily News, May 13, 2007
  10. ↑ USAID helps Indian mango farmers access new markets, USAID-India, May 3, 2006
  11. ↑ Unfair Trade, Adam Smith Institute, 25th Feb, 2008
  12. ↑ Merriam-Webster Dictionary Definition.
  13. ↑ Nutrient profile for mango, Nutritiondata.com
  14. ↑ Mango peel extract shows functional food potential
  15. ↑ Rocha Ribeiro SM, Queiroz JH, Lopes Ribeiro de Queiroz ME, Campos FM, Pinheiro Sant'ana HM (Mar 2007). "Antioxidant in mango (Mangifera indica L.) pulp". Plant Foods Hum Nutr. 62 (1): 13–7. doi:10.1007/s11130-006-0035-3. PMID 17243011. "However, the mango peel has properties similar to sumac or poison ivy, resulting in allergic rashes around the mouth, eyes, cheeks, and genitalia if the urushiol oil is spread. Washing the affected area five minutes after contact should prevent some of the symptoms. Symptoms can be swelling, formation of yellow sores, redness, and if unmaintained, may be subjected to bacterial infection.". 
  16. ↑ Ajila CM, Prasada Rao UJ (Jan 2008). "Protection against hydrogen peroxide induced oxidative damage in rat erythrocytes by Mangifera indica L. peel extract". Food Chem Toxicol. 46 (1): 303–9. doi:10.1016/j.fct.2007.08.024. PMID 17919803. 
  17. ↑ Iagher F, Reicher F, Ganter JL (Dec 2002). "Structural and rheological properties of polysaccharides from mango (Mangifera indica L.) pulp". Int J Biol Macromol. 31 (1-3): 9–17. doi:10.1016/S0141-8130(02)00044-2. PMID 12559422. http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0141813002000442. 
  18. ↑ Berardini N, Fezer R, Conrad J, Beifuss U, Carle R, Schieber A (Mar 2005). "Screening of mango (Mangifera indica L.) cultivars for their contents of flavonol O- and xanthone C-glycosides, anthocyanins, and pectin". J Agric Food Chem. 53 (5): 1563–70. doi:10.1021/jf0484069. PMID 15740041. 
  19. ↑ Gouado I, Schweigert FJ, Ejoh RA, Tchouanguep MF, Camp JV (Oct 2007). "Systemic levels of carotenoids from mangoes and papaya consumed in three forms (juice, fresh and dry slice)". Eur J Clin Nutr. 61 (10): 1180–8. doi:10.1038/sj.ejcn.1602841. PMID 17637601. 
  20. ↑ Mahattanatawee K, Manthey JA, Luzio G, Talcott ST, Goodner K, Baldwin EA (Sep 2006). "Total antioxidant activity and fiber content of select Florida-grown tropical fruits". J Agric Food Chem. 54 (19): 7355–63. doi:10.1021/jf060566s. PMID 16968105. 
  21. ↑ Singh UP, Singh DP, Singh M, et al (Mar 2004). "Characterization of phenolic compounds in some Indian mango cultivars". Int J Food Sci Nutr. 55 (2): 163–9. doi:10.1080/09637480410001666441. PMID 14985189. 
  22. ↑ Andreu GL, Delgado R, Velho JA, Curti C, Vercesi AE (Jul 2005). "Mangiferin, a natural occurring glucosyl xanthone, increases susceptibility of rat liver mitochondria to calcium-induced permeability transition". Arch Biochem Biophys. 439 (2): 184–93. doi:10.1016/j.abb.2005.05.015. PMID 15979560. 
  23. ↑ Percival SS, Talcott ST, Chin ST, Mallak AC, Lounds-Singleton A, Pettit-Moore J (01 May 2006). "Neoplastic transformation of BALB/3T3 cells and cell cycle of HL-60 cells are inhibited by mango (Mangifera indica L.) juice and mango juice extracts". J Nutr. 136 (5): 1300–4. PMID 16614420. http://jn.nutrition.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=16614420. 
  24. ↑ Rodríguez J, Di Pierro D, Gioia M, et al (Sep 2006). "Effects of a natural extract from Mangifera indica L, and its active compound, mangiferin, on energy state and lipid peroxidation of red blood cells". Biochim Biophys Acta. 1760 (9): 1333–42. doi:10.1016/j.bbagen.2006.04.005. PMID 16860486. 
  25. ↑ Rocha Ribeiro SM, Queiroz JH, Lopes Ribeiro de Queiroz ME, Campos FM, Pinheiro Sant'ana HM (Mar 2007). "Antioxidant in mango (Mangifera indica L.) pulp". Plant Foods Hum Nutr. 62 (1): 13–7. doi:10.1007/s11130-006-0035-3. PMID 17243011. 
  26. ↑ Chen JP, Tai CY, Chen BH (Oct 2004). "Improved liquid chromatographic method for determination of carotenoids in Taiwanese mango (Mangifera indica L.)". J Chromatogr A. 1054 (1-2): 261–8. PMID 15553152. 
  27. ↑ Barreto JC, Trevisan MT, Hull WE, et al (Jul 2008). "Characterization and quantitation of polyphenolic compounds in bark, kernel, leaves, and peel of mango (Mangifera indica L.)". J Agric Food Chem. 56 (14): 5599–610. doi:10.1021/jf800738r. PMID 18558692. 
  28. ↑ Chaturvedi PK, Bhui K, Shukla Y (May 2008). "Lupeol: connotations for chemoprevention". Cancer Lett. 263 (1): 1–13. doi:10.1016/j.canlet.2008.01.047. PMID 18359153. 
  29. ↑ Prasad S, Kalra N, Singh M, Shukla Y (Mar 2008). "Protective effects of lupeol and mango extract against androgen induced oxidative stress in Swiss albino mice". Asian J Androl. 10 (2): 313–8. doi:10.1111/j.1745-7262.2008.00313.x. PMID 18097535. 
  30. ↑ Nigam N, Prasad S, Shukla Y (Nov 2007). "Preventive effects of lupeol on DMBA induced DNA alkylation damage in mouse skin". Food Chem Toxicol. 45 (11): 2331–5. doi:10.1016/j.fct.2007.06.002. PMID 17637493. 
  31. ↑ Saleem M, Afaq F, Adhami VM, Mukhtar H (Jul 2004). "Lupeol modulates NF-kappaB and PI3K/Akt pathways and inhibits skin cancer in CD-1 mice". Oncogene 23 (30): 5203–14. doi:10.1038/sj.onc.1207641. PMID 15122342. 
  32. ↑ Rodeiro I, Cancino L, González JE, et al (Oct 2006). "Evaluation of the genotoxic potential of Mangifera indica L. extract (Vimang), a new natural product with antioxidant activity". Food Chem Toxicol. 44 (10): 1707–13. doi:10.1016/j.fct.2006.05.009. PMID 16857303. 
  33. ↑ Pardo-Andreu GL, Philip SJ, Riaño A, et al (Jan 2006). "Mangifera indica L. (Vimang) protection against serum oxidative stress in elderly humans". Arch Med Res. 37 (1): 158–64. doi:10.1016/j.arcmed.2005.04.017. PMID 16314203. 
  34. ↑ History of Indian yellow, Pigments Through the Ages
  35. ↑ Finlay, Victoria (2003). Color : A Natural History of the Palette. New York: Random House Trade Paperbacks. ISBN 0-8129-7142-6. 
  36. ↑ http://faostat.fao.org/site/567/DesktopDefault.aspx?PageID=567#ancor

References

External links