Universal suffrage

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Universal suffrage (also universal adult suffrage, general suffrage or common suffrage) consists of the extension of the right to vote to all adults, without distinction as to race, sex, belief, intelligence, or economic or social status.

It may seem like a minor point to add that suffrage applies only to citizens; for example, citizens of France do not necessarily have the right to vote in Germany. Although the relationship to citizenship may seem obvious, it is not such a minor point, because there are countries in the world that deny citizenship to their own residents based on race, belief, or class. Thus, some claims of universal suffrage may be technically or legally true but practically false.

In the first modern democracies only a limited number of people had a say in the running of the government - for example in the United Kingdom only Protestant, male landowners with relatively large holdings had the right to vote. Suffrage depended on local custom before 1832, so there were exceptions. In all modern democracies the number of people who could vote increased gradually with time. The 19th century featured movements advocating universal male suffrage - the extension to all males regardless of social standing or race. The democratic movement of the late 19th century, unifying Liberals and Social Democrats, particularly in northern Europe, used the slogan Equal and Common Suffrage. The Movement for Universal Suffrage consisted of a social, economic and political movement aimed at extending suffrage to people of all races.

Contents 1 Expanding suffrage 2 Disfranchisement 3 Universal suffrage in the world 4 Women suffrage 5 References 6 See also 7 External links

Expanding suffrage

The first movements toward universal suffrage (or manhood suffrage) occurred in the early 19th century, and focused on removing property requirements for voting. In the late 19th and early 20th century, the focus of universal suffrage movement became the removal of restrictions against women having the right to vote.

Several countries which had enacted universal suffrage had their normal legal process, or their existence, interrupted during the Second World War.

Many societies in the past have denied people the right to vote on the basis of race or ethnicity. For example, non-white people could not vote in national elections during apartheid-era South Africa, until the system came to an end with the first free multi-party elections in 1994. In the pre-Civil Rights Era American South, black people often technically had the right to vote, but various means prevented many of them from exercising that right. The Ku Klux Klan formed after the American Civil War, largely to intimidate black people and to prevent them from voting.

Disfranchisement

Some so-called "universal" suffrage systems still exclude, or disfranchise, some potential voters. For example, some jurisdictions deny the vote to various categories of convicted criminals or the mentally ill, and almost all jurisdictions deny the vote to non-citizen residents and citizens under the age of 18. Many states within the USA used to disenfranchise paupers, persons who either paid no direct taxes or those receiving public assistance.^[1]

There are also differing degrees of legal recognition of non-resident citizens: non-resident Italians have a representative at-large in the Italian parliament; U.S. citizens voting abroad vote as residents of the last state where they (or their parents) lived; Britons, however, cannot vote for their national parliament unless they have lived in the U.K. in the last five years. A few nations also restrict those who are involved in the military or police forces, as it is in the case of Kuwait.^[2]

Many democratic countries, most notably Great Britain, France, and the United States, have had colonies, the inhabitants of which have not, or mostly not, been citizens of the imperial power, but subjects; subjects have generally not been entitled to vote for the imperial legislature. A peculiarly complex case is that of Algeria under the Fourth French Republic; Algeria was legally an integral part of France, but citizenship was restricted (as in the French colonies proper) by culture, not by race or ethnicity. Any Algerian could become a French citizen by choosing to live like a Frenchman; very few did.

The development/integration of the European Union has changed a few matters. Citizens of an EU Member-State are allowed to vote in E.U. parliamentary elections, as well as some local elections. For example, a Briton living in Graz, Austria, would be able to vote in for the European Parliament as a resident of the "electoral district" of Austria, and to vote in Graz municipal elections. He would, however, not be able to vote in Austrian (federal) elections, or Styrian (state) elections. Similarly, all residents of a municipality in the UK are allowed to vote for representatives of the local council, regardless of citizenship, but only British citizens are allowed to vote for the British House of Commons.

Universal suffrage in the world

States have granted and revoked universal suffrage at various times, including Brunei since 1962. Note: The table can be sorted alphabetically or chronologically using the icon.

Universal suffrage by country/territory

Year	Country / Territory	Notes
1755 - 1769	Corsica	First self-governing nation to give limited suffrage to women (if unmarried or widowed). Annexed by France in 1769.
1776 - 1807	New Jersey, USA	First state to include both women and blacks. There was a property requirement, which implied that married women were not enfranchised; but its enforcement was and is disputed.[3]
1792	Principality of Liège	Universal suffrage (all inhabitants over 18, without distinction) in the state of Liège to elect all the members of the National Convention.
1869	Wyoming, USA	The first U.S. territory to allow women to run for the legislature and vote. Upon the state's admission into the Union in 1890, Wyoming was the first U.S. state to grant women the voting franchise. Other Western states also had universal suffrage before 1920.
1886 - 1899	Tavolara	During its republican period 1886-1899, this small island country near Sardinia practiced universal suffrage. Later it became a part of Italy.
1889	Franceville	First self-governing nation after New Jersey to practice universal suffrage without distinction of sex or race; however, only whites could hold office. After 1906 it was jointly ruled by France and Britain and is now part of Vanuatu.
1893	New Zealand	With the inclusion of women becomes the first major nation to grant universal suffrage; however, women were not eligible to stand for parliament until 1919. Universal suffrage for Maori men over 21 granted 1867; extended to European males 1879.[4]
1894	South Australia	Women's suffrage, but not universal. First state to also allow women as candidates for parliament. Other Australian states followed 1899-1908. Indigenous Australians were allowed to vote, but this right was restricted for some of them from 1902 and not completely restored until 1963.
1901	Australia	The Commonwealth Constitution does not guarantee universal adult suffrage,[5] although three Justices in McGinty v Western Australia (1996) 186 CLR 140; 134 ALR 289 stated that the requirement did in fact flow from the Commonwealth Constitution, as interpreted today.
1906	Grand Duchy of Finland	As an autonomous Grand Duchy in the Russian Empire, including women, first nation to also allow women as candidates. The Finnish parliamentary election of 1907 was the first time when women were actually elected (19 of 200 MPs). Finland became independent with the same Universal Suffrage in 1917. However, universal suffrage was only extended to local elections after independence.
1907	Austria	Equal suffrage for men
1913	Norway	Including women, first independent nation to also allow women as candidates.
1915	Denmark	First voting rights to anyone came in 1849, and the rules were changed a number of times. But it was not until the change of the constitution in 1915 that all men and women had influence on all chambers.
1917	Estonia	Two tiered elections were held, with 62 representatives from rural communities and towns elected in May-June and July-August, respectively.
1918	Canada	All women were granted the right to vote, and since 1920 a uniform federal franchise was created;[6] Last to enact women's suffrage provincially was Quebec in 1940; status Indians gained the right to vote in 1960.
1918	United Kingdom	Women over 30 had been given the vote in 1918 with some property restrictions and in 1928 universal suffrage for all.
1918	Soviet Union	With the 1918 Soviet Constitution; direct voting and the lifting of some political restrictions not until the 1936 Soviet Constitution.
1918	Austria	After the Central Powers' defeat in World War I universal suffrage including women.
1918	Czechoslovakia	After the Central Powers' defeat in World War I
1918	Germany	After the Central Powers' defeat in World War I and the introduction of a democratic system, the Weimar Republic. Revoked during 1935-1945 by the Nuremberg Laws. The restrictions applied also to the territories occupied by the Nazis during World War II. The German Empire (and the North German Confederation before it) had had universal male suffrage since 1867, but only in federal elections; several constituent states, like Prussia, had had census suffrage and some, like Mecklenburg, had had no state elections at all.
1918	Hungary	After the Central Powers' defeat in World War I
1919	Democratic Republic of Armenia	became part of the Soviet Union in 1920
1919	Azerbaijan Democratic Republic	became part of the Soviet Union in 1920
1919	Democratic Republic of Georgia	became part of the Soviet Union in 1921
1919	Poland
1919	Luxembourg
1919	The Netherlands	universal male suffrage in 1917
1920	United States	Extended to women with the 19th Amendment in 1920. African Americans were legally given the right to vote by the 15th Amendment in 1870, but this was restricted in some areas, particularly the South, through paralegal methods until 1964, when the Civil Rights Act enforced the 15th Amendment, and the 24th Amendment ended poll taxing, thus removing all restrictions to the African American vote. Minimum voting age reduced to 18 by 26th Amendment in 1971.
1921	Sweden	universal male suffrage 1911, female suffrage 1921
1922	Lithuania
1922	Republic of Ireland	As the Irish Free State in 1922, law adopted from British law having been part of the United Kingdom. Law subsequently carried over during changes in constitutional status in 1937 and 1949.
1925	Newfoundland	Joined Canada in 1949.
1931	Ceylon (now as Sri Lanka)	Indian Tamils disenfranchised 1949
1932	Brazil	Replaced the previous system of male suffrage, from 1891, which excluded homeless, women, priests, the military and illiterates.
1933	Spain	Suffrage for men practiced since 1869 to 1923 and in the Second Spanish Republic (1931-1936). In November 19, 1933 women were granted the right to vote. Revoked during Franco era (1939-1975) and recovered since 1977 and in the new Spanish Constitution.
1933	Turkey
1935	Burma	Last free elections held in 1990.[7]
1944	France	Universal male suffrage used in 1792, for the National Convention, enacted in 1793 and 1848, but restricted with length of residence in 1851; reintroduced in 1852.
1944	Jamaica	Universal suffrage for all males and females 18 or older
1945	Italy	Universal male suffrage 1912 for people 30 or older, 1918 for people 21 or older
1945	Japan	Universal male suffrage 1926
1947	Republic of China (now on Taiwan)	Universal suffrage under the Constitution of the Republic of China
1948	United Nations	Provision of "universal and equal suffrage" in Universal Declaration of Human Rights [Article 21(3)]
1948	Israel	Vote of citizens since the founding of the State of Israel (see discussion page).
1948	South Korea
1948	Belgium
1950	India	All citizens as recognized by the Constitution of India, irrespective of race or gender.
1951	Argentina	Universal male suffrage granted in 1912; universal women's suffrage introduced in 1947.
1951	Ghana	Universal suffrage granted for the 1951 legislative election.
1952	Greece	Universal male suffrage in 1864, with secret ballot; women given the vote in local elections since 1930 and in parliamentary elections since 1952.
1955	Malaysia	The victory of Union Party convinces the British to grant Malaysia's Independence in 1957.
1956	Colombia	Electorate defined on the basis of adult franchise and Joint electorate.
1956	Pakistan
1963	Iran	Reforms under Shah's "White Revolution"
1964	Afghanistan	Constitution transformed Afghanistan into a modern democracy.[8]
1965	Australia	A murky constitutional history regarding the voting rights of Aboriginals of Australia was clarified and ratified at the federal government level and in subsequent state governments in the following years - see Human rights in Australia for more.
1971	Switzerland	Introduction of women's suffrage at the federal level; for cantonal elections this was not completed until 1990.
1976	Portugal
1979	European Community (now European Union)
1984	Liechtenstein
1990	Samoa
1994	South Africa	universal suffrage not regarding race or colour of skin; Blacks and Coloureds were denied the right to vote during the Apartheid era (1948-1994) White women's suffrage granted in 1930.
1996	Taiwan
2002	Bahrain	Universal male suffrage in 1973, although parliament was suspended and dissolved in 1975 for approximately 30 years.
2003	Oman
2005	Kuwait	Universal adult male suffrage since 1962, for citizens who are 21 or older, with the exception of those who, at the time of elections, serve in the armed forces and, citizens who have been naturalized for fewer than 30 years. Note: As of 2005, women who satisfy the age and citizenship requirements are allowed to vote provided both men and women vote in separate polling locations.
2006 - 2010	U.A.E.	Limited, will be fully expanded by 2010.[9]
2008	Qatar	Municipal elections in 1999.
2008	Bhutan

Women suffrage

Main article: Women's suffrage

The first women's suffrage was granted in Corsica in 1755 and lasted until 1769.

Women's suffrage (with the same property qualifications as for men) was next granted in New Jersey in 1776 (the word "inhabitants" was used instead of "men") and rescinded in 1807.

The Pitcairn Islands granted restricted women's suffrage in 1838. Various other countries and states granted restricted women's suffrage in the latter half of the nineteenth century, starting with South Australia in 1861.

The first unrestricted women's suffrage in terms of voting rights (women were not initially permitted to stand for election) in a major country was granted in New Zealand. The women's suffrage bill was adopted mere weeks before the general election of 1893.

South Australia first granted women suffrage and allowed them to stand for parliament in 1894.

In 1931, the Second Spanish Republic allowed women the right of passive suffrage with three women being elected. During the discussion to extend their right to active suffrage, the Radical Socialist Victoria Kent confronted the Radical Clara Campoamor. Kent argued that Spanish women were not yet prepared to vote and, since they were too influenced by the Catholic Church they would vote for right-wing candidates. Campoamor however pleaded for women's rights regardless of political orientation. Her point finally prevailed and, in the election of 1933, the political right won with the vote of citizens of any sex over 23. Both Campoamor and Kent lost their seats.

References

See also

• Suffragette

External links

• Limited suffrage in England prior to the 1832 reforms
• Finnish centennial celebration

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