List of volcanoes in Indonesia

Major volcanoes in Indonesia

The geography of Indonesia is dominated by volcanoes that are formed due to subduction zones between the Eurasian plate and the Indo-Australian plate. Some of the volcanoes are notable for their eruptions, for instance, Krakatau for its global effects in 1883,[1] Lake Toba for its supervolcanic eruption estimated to have occurred 74,000 Before Present which was responsible for six years of volcanic winter,[2] and Mount Tambora for the most violent eruption in recorded history in 1815.[3]

Volcanoes in Indonesia are a part of the Pacific Ring of Fire. The 150 entries in the list below are grouped into six geographical regions, four of which belong to the volcanoes of the Sunda Arc trench system. The remaining two groups are volcanoes of Halmahera, including its surrounding volcanic islands, and volcanoes of Sulawesi and the Sangihe Islands. The latter group is in one volcanic arc together with the Philippine volcanoes.

The most active volcanoes are Kelut and Merapi on Java island which have been responsible for thousands of deaths in the region. Since AD 1000, Kelut has erupted more than 30 times, of which the largest eruption was at scale 5 on the Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI),[4] while Merapi has erupted more than 80 times.[5] The International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth's Interior has named Merapi as a Decade Volcano since 1995 because of its high volcanic activity.

Contents

Scope

There is no single standard definition for volcano. It can be defined from individual vents, volcanic edificies or volcanic fields. Interior of ancient volcanoes may have been eroded, creating a new subsurface magma chamber as a separate volcano. Many contemporary active volcanoes rise as young parasitic cones from flank vents or at a central crater. Some volcanic cones are grouped into one volcano name, for instance, the Tengger caldera complex, although individual vents are named by local people. The status of a volcano, either active or dormant, cannot be defined precisely. An indication of a volcano is determined by either its historical records, radiocarbon dating, or geothermal activities.

The primary source of the list below is taken from the "Volcanoes of the World" book, compiled by two volcanologists Tom Simkin and Lee Siebert,[a] in which active volcanoes in the past 10,000 years (Holocene) are listed.[6] Particularly for Indonesia, Simkin and Siebert used a catalogue of active volcanoes from the International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth's Interior publication series.[b] The Simkin and Siebert list is the most complete list of volcanoes in Indonesia, but the accuracy of the record varies from one region to another in terms of contemporary activities and fatalities in recent eruptions. Complementary sources for the latest volcanic data are taken from the Volcanological Survey of Indonesia, a governmental institution which is responsible for volcanic activities and geological hazard mitigation in Indonesia,[7] and some academic resources.

Geographical groups

Sumatra

Map showing the location of volcanoes and geological fault lines of Sumatra.

The geography of Sumatra is dominated by a mountain range called Bukit Barisan (lit: "a row of hills"). The mountain range spans nearly 1,700 km (1,050 mi) from the north to the south of the island, and it was formed by movement of the Australian tectonic plate.[8] The plate moves with a convergence rate of 5.5 cm/year which has created major earthquakes on the western side of Sumatra including the 2004 Sumatra-Andaman earthquake.[9][10] The tectonic movement has been responsible not only for earthquakes, but also for the formulation of magma chambers beneath the island.[8]

Only one of the 35 active volcanos, Weh, is separated from the Sumatran mainland. The separation was caused by a large eruption that filled the lowland between Weh and the rest of the mainland with sea water in the Pleistocene epoch. The largest volcano of Sumatra is the supervolcano Toba within the 100 km (62 miles) × 30 km (19 miles) Lake Toba, which was created after a caldera collapse (est. in 74,000 Before Present).[2] The eruption is estimated to have been at level eight on the VEI scale, the largest possible for a volcanic eruption. The highest peak of the mountain range is Mount Kerinci with an elevation of 3,800 m (12,467 ft).

Name Shape Elevation Last eruption (VEI) Geolocation
(m) (ft)
Weh stratovolcano 617 2,024 Pleistocene
Seulawah Agam stratovolcano 1,810 5,938 1839 (2)
Peuet Sague complex volcano 2,801 9,190 25 December 2000 (2)
Geureudong stratovolcano 2,885 9,465 1937
Kembar shield volcano 2,245 7,365 Pleistocene
Sibayak stratovolcano 2,212 7,257 1881
Sinabung stratovolcano 2,460 8,071 unknown
Toba supervolcano 2,157 7,077 unknown
Helatoba-Tarutung fumarole field 1,100 3,609 Pleistocene
Imun unknown 1,505 4,938 unknown
Sibualbuali stratovolcano 1,819 5,968 unknown
Lubukraya stratovolcano 1,862 6,109 unknown
Sorikmarapi stratovolcano 2,145 7,037 1986 (1)
Talakmau complex volcano 2,919 9,577 unknown
Sarik-Gajah volcanic cone unknown unknown unknown
Marapi complex volcano 2,891 9,485 5 August 2004 (2)
Tandikat stratovolcano 2,438 7 999 1924 (1)
Talang stratovolcano 2,597 8,520 12 April 2005 (2)
Kerinci stratovolcano 3,800 12,467 22 June 2004 (2)
Hutapanjang stratovolcano 2,021 6,631 unknown
Sumbing stratovolcano 2,507 8,225 23 May 1921 (2)
Kunyit stratovolcano 2,151 7,057 unknown
Pendan unknown unknown unknown unknown
Belirang-Beriti compound 1,958 6,424 unknown
Bukit Daun stratovolcano 2,467 8,094 unknown
Kaba stratovolcano 1,952 6,404 22 August 2000 (1)
Dempo stratovolcano 3,173 10,410 October 1994 (1)
Patah unknown 2,817 9,242 unknown
Bukit Lumut Balai stratovolcano 2,055 6,742 unknown
Besar stratovolcano 1,899 6,230 April 1940 (1)
Ranau caldera 1,881 6,171 unknown
Sekincau Belirang caldera 1,719 5,640 unknown
Suoh caldera 1,000 3,281 10 July 1933 (4)
Hulubelu caldera 1,040 3,412 unknown
Rajabasa stratovolcano 1,281 4,202 unknown
Source: Global Volcanism Program.[11]

Sunda Strait and Java

The Sunda Strait separates the islands of Sumatra and Java with the volcanic island Krakatau lying between them. Krakatau erupted violently in 1883, destroying two-thirds of the island and leaving a large caldera under the sea. This cataclysmic explosion was heard as far away as the island of Rodrigues near Mauritius (approx. 3000 miles or 4800 km away).[1] A new parasitic cone, called Anak Krakatau (or the child of Krakatau), rose from the sea at the center of the caldera in 1930.[12] The other Krakatau islets from the 1883 eruptions are known as Sertung, Panjang and Rakata.

Java is a relatively small island compared to Sumatra, but it has a higher concentration of active volcanoes. There are 45 active volcanoes on the island excluding 20 small craters and cones in the Dieng volcanic complex and the young cones in the Tengger caldera complex. Some volcanoes are grouped together in the list below because of their close location. Mount Merapi, Semeru and Kelut are the most active volcanoes in Java. Mount Semeru has been continuously erupting since 1967.[13] Mount Merapi has been named as one of the Decade Volcanoes since 1995.[14] Ijen has a unique colorful caldera lake which is an extremely acidic natural reservoir (pH<0.3).[15] There are sulfur mining activities at Ijen, where miners collect highly concentrated sulfur rocks by hand.

Name Shape Elevation Last eruption (VEI) Geolocation
(m) (ft)
Krakatau caldera 813 2,667 21 July 2001 (1)
Pulosari stratovolcano 1,346 4,416 unknown
Karang stratovolcano 1,778 5,833 unknown
Kiaraberes-Gagak stratovolcano 1,511 4,957 6 April 1939 (1)
Perbakti stratovolcano 1,699 5,574 unknown
Salak stratovolcano 2,211 7,254 31 January 1938 (2)
Gede stratovolcano 2,958 9,705 13 March 1957 (2)
Patuha stratovolcano 2,434 7,986 unknown
Wayang-Windu lava dome 2,182 7,159 unknown
Malabar stratovolcano 2,343 7,687 unknown
Tangkuban Parahu stratovolcano 2,084 6,837 14 September 1983 (1)
Papandayan stratovolcano 2,665 8,743 11 November 2002 (2)
Kendang stratovolcano 2,608 8,556 unknown
Kamojang stratovolcano 1,730 5,676 Pleistocene
Guntur complex volcano 2,249 7,379 16 October 1847 (2)
Tampomas stratovolcano 1,684 5,525 unknown
Galunggung stratovolcano 2,168 7,113 9 January 1984 (1)
Talagabodas stratovolcano 2,201 7,221 unknown
Karaha fumarole 1,155 3,789 unknown
Cereme stratovolcano 3,078 10,098 unknown
Slamet stratovolcano 3,428 11,247 1 May 1999 (1)
Dieng complex volcano 2,565 8,415 31 December 1996 (1)
Sundoro stratovolcano 3,136 10,289 29 October 1971 (2)
Sumbing stratovolcano 3,371 11,060 1730 (1)
Ungaran stratovolcano 2,050 6,726 unknown
Telomoyo stratovolcano 1,894 6,214 unknown
Merbabu stratovolcano 3,145 10,318 1797 (2)
Merapi stratovolcano 2,968 9,738 15 May 2006[16]
Muria stratovolcano 1,625 5,331 160 BC ± 30 years
Lawu stratovolcano 3,265 10,712 28 November 1885 (1)
Wilis stratovolcano 2,563 8,409 unknown
Kelut stratovolcano 1,731 5,679 10 February 1990 (4)
Kawi-Butak stratovolcano 2,651 8,698 unknown
Arjuno-Welirang stratovolcano 3,339 10,955 15 August 1952 (0)
Penanggungan stratovolcano 1,653 5,423 unknown
Malang Plain maar 680 2,231 unknown
Semeru stratovolcano 3,676 12,060 1967–2006 continuing (3)
Tengger stratovolcano 2,329 7,641 8 June 2004 (2)
Lamongan stratovolcano 1,651 5,417 5 February 1898 (2)
Lurus complex volcano 539 1,768 unknown
Iyang-Argapura complex volcano 3,088 10,131 unknown
Raung stratovolcano 3,332 10,932 2 June 2002 (2)
Ijen stratovolcano 2,799 9,183 28 June 1999 (1)
Baluran stratovolcano 1,247 4,091 unknown
Source: Global Volcanism Program.[17][18]

Lesser Sunda Islands

The Lesser Sunda Islands is a small archipelago which, from west to east, consists of Bali, Lombok, Sumbawa, Flores, Sumba and the Timor islands; all are located at the edge of the Australian continental shelf. Volcanoes in the area are formed because of oceanic crusts and the movement of the shelf itself.[19] Some volcanoes completely form an island, for instance, the Sangeang Api island. Mount Tambora, on Sumbawa island, erupted on 5 April 1815, with a scale 7 on the VEI and is considered the most violent eruption in recorded history.[3]

Name Shape Elevation Last eruption (VEI) Geolocation
(m) (ft)
Merbuk tba 1,386 4,547 unknown -
Bratan caldera 2,276 7,467 unknown
Batur caldera 1,717 5,633 15 March 1999 (1)
Agung stratovolcano 3,142 10,308 18 February 1963 (5)
Rinjani stratovolcano 3,726 12,224 1 October 2004 (2)
Tambora stratovolcano 2,850 9,350 1967 ± 20 years (0)
Sangeang Api complex volcano 1,949 6,394 30 July 1985 (3)
Wai Sano caldera 903 2,963 unknown
Poco Leok unknown 1,675 5,495 unknown
Ranakah lava dome 2,100 6,890 March 1991 (1)
Inierie stratovolcano 2,245 7,365 8050 BC
Inielika complex volcano 1,559 5,115 11 January 2001 (2)
Ebulobo stratovolcano 2,124 6,969 27 February 1969 (2)
Iya stratovolcano 637 2,090 27 January 1969 (3)
Sukaria caldera 1,500 4,921 unknown
Ndete Napu fumarole 750 2,461 unknown
Kelimutu complex volcano 1,639 5,377 3 June 1968 (1)
Paluweh stratovolcano 875 2,871 3 February 1985 (1)
Egon stratovolcano 1,703 5,587 6 February 2005 (1)
Ilimuda stratovolcano 1,100 3,609 unknown
Lewotobi stratovolcano 1,703 5,587 30 May 2003 (2)
Leroboleng complex volcano 1,117 3,665 26 June 2003 (3)
Riang Kotang fumarole 200 656 unknown
Iliboleng stratovolcano 1,659 5,443 June 1993 (1)
Lewotolo stratovolcano 1,423 4,669 15 December 1951 (2)
Ililabalekan stratovolcano 1,018 3,340 unknown
Iliwerung complex volcano 1,018 3,340 22 May 1999 (0)
Batu Tara stratovolcano 748 2,454 1847 (2)
Sirung complex volcano 862 2,828 1970 (2)
Yersey submarine -3,800 -12,467 unknown
Mount Agung on Bali.
Eruption of Rinjani in 1984.
One of three different colored lakes of Kelimutu.
Source: Global Volcanism Program.[20]

Banda Sea

The Banda Sea in the south of the Molucca archipelago includes a small group of islands. Three major tectonic plates beneath the sea, Eurasian, Pacific and Indo-Australian plates, have been converging since the Mesozoic epoch.[21] Volcanoes in the Banda Sea are mainly islands, but some are submarine volcanoes.

Name Shape Elevation Last eruption (VEI) Geolocation
(m) (ft)
Emperor of China submarine -2,850 -9,350 unknown
Nieuwerkerk submarine -2,285 -7,500 unknown
Gunungapi Wetar stratovolcano 282 925 1699 (3)
Wurlali stratovolcano 868 2,850 3 June 1892 (2)
Teon stratovolcano 655 2,150 3 June 1904 (2)
Nila stratovolcano 781 2,500 7 May 1968 (1)
Serua stratovolcano 641 2,100 18 September 1921 (2)
Manuk stratovolcano 282 925 unknown
Banda Api caldera 640 2,100 9 May 1988 (3)
Banda Api as seen from the Fort Belgica on Banda Island.
Source: Global Volcanism Program.[22]

Sulawesi and Sangihe Islands

Four peninsulas dominate the shape of Sulawesi island (formerly known as Celebes). The central part is high mountaineous area, but mostly non-volcanic. Active volcanoes are found in the northern peninsula and continuously stretches to the north to Sangihe Islands. The Sangihe Islands marks the border with Philippines.

Name Shape Elevation Last eruption (VEI) Geolocation
(m) (ft)
Colo stratovolcano 507 1,663 18 July 1983 (4)
Ambang complex volcano 1,795 5,890 1845 ± 5 years
Soputan stratovolcano 1,784 5,853 24–30 October 2007
Sempu caldera 1,549 5,082 unknown
Tondano caldera 1,202 3,944 unknown
Lokon-Empung stratovolcano 1,580 5,184 23 September 2003 (3)
Mahawu stratovolcano 1,324 4,344 16 November 1977 (0)
Klabat stratovolcano 1,995 6,545 unknown
Tongkoko stratovolcano 1,149 3,770 1880 (1)
Ruang stratovolcano 725 2,379 25 September 2002 (4)
Karangetang stratovolcano 1,784 5,853 August 2007
Banua Wuhu submarine -5 -16.5 18 July 1919 (3)
Awu stratovolcano 1,320 4,331 2 June 2004 (2)
Submarine 1922 submarine -5,000 -16,404 unknown
Source: Global Volcanism Program.[23][24]

Halmahera

Halmahera island in the north of Molucca archipelago has been formed by the movement of three tectonic plates resulting in two intersecting mountain ranges, which form four rocky peninsulas separated by three deep bays. A volcanic arc stretches from north to south in the west side of Halmahera, some of which are volcanic islands, for instance, Gamalama and Tidore. Gamalama's island name is Ternate and it has been the center for spice trading since the Portuguese Empire opened a fort in 1512. Due to its location as the center for spice trading during the Age of Discovery, historical records of volcanic eruptions in Halmahera have been available as far back as the early sixteenth century.

Name Shape Elevation Last eruption (VEI) Geolocation
(m) (ft)
Tarakan pyroclastic cone 318 1,043 unknown
Dukono complex volcano 1,335 4,380 13 August 1933 (3)
Tobaru unknown 1,035 3,396 unknown
Ibu stratovolcano 1,325 4,347 May 2005 (0)
Gamkonora stratovolcano 1,635 5,364 9 July 2007 (?)
Todoko-Ranu caldera 979 3,212 unknown
Jailolo stratovolcano 1,130 3,707 unknown
Hiri stratovolcano 630 2,067 unknown
Gamalama stratovolcano 1,715 5,627 31 July 2003 (2)
Tidore stratovolcano 1,730 5,676 unknown
Mare stratovolcano 308 1,010 unknown
Moti stratovolcano 950 3,117 unknown
Makian stratovolcano 1,357 4,452 29 July 1988 (3)
Tigalalu stratovolcano 422 1,385 unknown
Amasing stratovolcano 1,030 3,379 unknown
Bibinoi stratovolcano 900 2,953 unknown
Depiction of Gamalama erupting in the early 1700s with a Portuguese fort shown.
Source: Global Volcanism Program.[25]

Major eruptions

Below is a list of selected major eruptions of volcanoes in Indonesia, sorted chronologically by the starting date of the eruption. Only eruptions with scale 3 or above on VEI are given with known sources and fatalities, except if smaller scale eruptions resulted some fatalities.

Eruption date Volcano Cessation date VEI Characteristics Tsunami Tephra volume Fatality Sources
20 Jan 1992 Merapi 19 Oct 2002 2 cv,pf,ld,lm no N/A 66 [5]
10 Feb 1990 Kelut Mar 1990 4 cv,cl,pf,ph,ld,lm no 0.13 km³ 35 [26]
18 Jul 1983 Colo Dec 1983 4 cv,pf,ph no N/A 0 [26]
5 Apr 1982 Galunggung 8 Jan 1983 4 cv,pf,lf,lm no > 0.37 km³ 68 [27][28]
6 Oct 1972 Merapi Mar 1985 2 cv,pf,lf,ld,lm no 0.021 km³ 29 [5]
26 Apr 1966 Kelut 27 Apr 1966 4 cv,cl,pf,lm no 0.089 km³ 212 [26]
17 Mar 1963 Agung 27 Jan 1964 5 cv,pf,lf,lm no 1 km³ 1,148 [29]
31 Aug 1951 Kelut 31 Aug 1951 4 cv,cl,pf,lm no 0.2 km³ 7 [26]
25 Nov 1930 Merapi Sep 1931 3 cv,rf,pf,lf,ld,lm no 0.0017 km³ 1,369 [5]
19 May 1919 Kelut 20 May 1919 4 cv,cl,pf,lm no 0.19 km³ 5,110 [26]
7 Jun 1892 Awu 12 Jun 1892 3 cv,pf,lm yes N/A 1,532 [30]
26 Aug 1883 Krakatau Feb 1884 6 cv,se,pf,fa,lm,cc 15–42 m 5–8.5 km³ 36,600 [1][29][31]
15 Apr 1872 Merapi 21 Apr 1872 4 cv,pf no 0.33 km³ 200 [5]
2 Mar 1856 Awu 17 Mar 1856 3 cv,pf,lm yes 0.51±0.50 km³ 2,806 [30]
8 Oct 1822 Galunggung Dec 1822 5 cv,pf,ld,lm no > 1 km³ 4,011 [26]
10 Apr 1815 Mount Tambora 15 Jul 1815 7 cv,pf,cc 1–2 m 160 km³ > 71,000 [3][32]
6 Aug 1812 Awu 8 Aug 1812 4 cv,pf,lm no 0.55±0.50 km³ 963 [30]
12 Aug 1772 Papandayan 12 Aug 1772 3 cv,ph no N/A 2,957 [33]
4 Aug 1672 Merapi unknown 3 cv,pf,lm no N/A 3,000 [5]
1586 Kelut unknown 5 cf,cl,lm no > 1 km³ 10,000 [26]
≈ 74,000 BP Toba unknown 8 pf,lf,cc likely 2,800 km³ near extinction of
human population		 [2]
Fatality numbers are mostly taken from the Volcanological Survey of Indonesia,[7] and Tanguy et al (1998).[34]
Notes: cv=central vent eruption, pf=pyroclastic flows, lf=lava flows, lm=lahar mudflows, cl=crater lake eruption, ph=phreatic eruption, ld=lava dome extrusion, cc=caldera collapse, se=submarine eruption, fa=fumarole activity, rf=radial fissure eruption.

See also

References

General references

  1. ^ a M. Neumann van Padang (1951). "Indonesia". Catalog of Active Volcanoes of the World and Solfatara Fields: 1–271, 1, Rome: IAVCEI. 
  2. ^ a Tom Simkin and Lee Siebert (1994). Volcanoes of the World: A Regional Directory, Gazetteer, and Chronology of Volcanism During the Last 10,000 Years (2nd ed. ed.). Geoscience Press. ISBN 0945005121. 

Notes

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 Winchester, Simon (2003). Krakatoa: The Day the World Exploded: August 27, 1883. HarperCollins. ISBN 0-06-621285-5. 
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 Oppenheimer, C. (2002). "Limited global change due to the largest known Quaternary eruption, Toba ≈74 kyr BP?". Quarternary Science Reviews 21 (14–15): 1593–1609. doi:10.1016/S0277-3791(01)00154-8. 
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 Stothers, Richard B. (1984). "The Great Tambora Eruption in 1815 and Its Aftermath". Science 224 (4654): 1191–1198. doi:10.1126/science.224.4654.1191. 
  4. ↑ "Kelut Eruptive History". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved on 2006-12-19.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 "Merapi Eruptive History". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved on 2006-12-19.
  6. ↑ "Summary Data Criteria". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved on 2006-12-31.
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 "Centre of Volcanology & Geological Hazard Mitigation". Volcanological Survey of Indonesia. Retrieved on 2006-12-31.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Simoes, M., Avouac, J.P., Cattin, R., Henry, P. (2004). "The Sumatra subduction zone: A case for a locked fault zone extending into the mantle" (PDF). Journal of Geophysical Research 109: B10402. doi:10.1029/2003JB002958. http://tectonics.caltech.edu/publications/pdf/simoes_JGR2004.pdf. 
  9. ↑ Subarya, C., Chlieh, M., Prawirodirdjo, L., Avouac, J.P., Bock, Y., Sieh, K., Meltzner, A., Natawidjaja, D.H., McCaffrey, R. (2006). "Plate-boundary deformation associated with the great Sumatra-Andaman earthquake" (PDF). Nature 440: 46–51. doi:10.1038/nature04522. http://tectonics.caltech.edu/publications/pdf/Subarya_Nature2006.pdf. 
  10. ↑ Lay, T., Kanamori, H., Ammon, C., Nettles, M., Ward, S., Aster, R., Beck, S., Bilek, S., Brudzinski, M., Butler, R., DeShon, H., Ekstrom, G. (2005). "The Great Sumatra-Andaman Earthquake of 26 December 2004" (PDF). Science 308 (5725): 1127–1133. doi:10.1126/science.1112250. http://tectonics.caltech.edu/publications/pdf/Lay_Science2005.pdf. 
  11. ↑ "Volcanoes of Indonesia - Sumatra". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved on 2006-11-17.
  12. ↑ Whittaker, R. J.; Bush, M. B. (1993). "Anak Krakatau and old Krakatau: a reply". GeoJournal 29 (4): 417–420. doi:10.1007/BF00807545. 
  13. ↑ "Semeru Weekly Reports". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved on 2006-12-07.
  14. ↑ International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth's Interior (1995). "Decade Volcano Update". Bulletin of Volcanology 57 (1): 82–83. doi:10.1007/BF00298711. 
  15. ↑ Ansje Löhr, Thom Bogaard, Alex Heikens, Martin Hendriks, Sri Sumarti, Manfred van Bergen, Kees C.A.M. van Gestel, Nico van Straalen, Pieter Vroonand, and Budi Widianarko (2005). "Natural Pollution Caused by the Extremely Acid Crater Lake Kawah Ijen, East Java, Indonesia". Environmental Science and Pollution Research 12 (2): 89–95. doi:10.1065/espr2004.09.118. 
  16. ↑ "Mount Merapi Erupts", ANTARA (15 May 2006). Retrieved on 2006-11-17. 
  17. ↑ "Volcanoes of Indonesia - Krakatau". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved on 2006-11-17.
  18. ↑ "Volcanoes of Indonesia - Java". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved on 2006-11-17.
  19. ↑ H. A. Brouwer (July 1939). "Exploration in the Lesser Sunda Islands". The Geographical Journal 94 (1): 1–10. doi:10.2307/1788584. http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0016-7398%28193907%2994%3A1%3C1%3AEITLSI%3E2.0.CO%3B2-4. 
  20. ↑ "Volcanoes of Indonesia - Lesser Sunda Islands". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved on 2006-11-17.
  21. ↑ Christian Honthaasa, Jean-Pierre Réhaulta, René C. Maurya, Hervé Bellona, Christophe Hémonda, Jacques-André Maloda, Jean-Jacques Cornéeb, Michel Villeneuveb, Joseph Cottena, Safri Burhanuddinc, Hervé Guilloud and Nicolas Arnaud (1998). "A Neogene back-arc origin for the Banda Sea basins: geochemical and geochronological constraints from the Banda ridges (East Indonesia)". Tectonophysics 298 (4): 297–317. doi:10.1016/S0040-1951(98)00190-5. http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/els/00401951/1998/00000298/00000004/art00190. 
  22. ↑ "Volcanoes of Indonesia - Banda Sea". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved on 2006-11-17.
  23. ↑ "Volcanoes of Indonesia - Sulawesi". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved on 2006-11-17.
  24. ↑ "Volcanoes of Indonesia - Sangihe Islands". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved on 2006-11-17.
  25. ↑ "Volcanoes of Indonesia - Halmahera". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved on 2006-11-17.
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 26.2 26.3 26.4 26.5 26.6 "Large Holocene Eruptions". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved on 2006-12-18.
  27. ↑ Katili, J.A. and Sudradjat, A. (1984). "Galunggung: the 1982-1983 eruption". Volcanology Survei Indonesia: 102. 
  28. ↑ "Galunggung, Java, Indonesia". Volcano World. Department of Geosciences at Oregon State University. Retrieved on 2006-12-30.
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 Michael R. Rampino and Stephen Self (1982). "Historic eruptions of Tambora (1815), Krakatau (1883), and Agung (1963), their stratospheric aerosols, and climatic impact". Quaternary Research 18 (2): 127–143. doi:10.1016/0033-5894(82)90065-5. 
  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 30.2 "Awu's Eruptive History". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved on 2006-12-31.
  31. ↑ B.H. Choi, E. Pelinovsky, K.O. Kim and J.S. Lee (2003). "Simulation of the trans-oceanic tsunami propagation due to the 1883 Krakatau volcanic eruption" (PDF). Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences 3: 321–332. http://iri.ldeo.columbia.edu/~lareef/tsunami/nhs-3-321.pdf. 
  32. ↑ Oppenheimer, Clive (2003). "Climatic, environmental and human consequences of the largest known historic eruption: Tambora volcano (Indonesia) 1815". Progress in Physical Geography 27 (2): 230–259. doi:10.1191/0309133303pp379ra. 
  33. ↑ "The Deadliest Eruptions". Volcano World. Department of Geosciences at Oregon State University. Retrieved on 2006-12-31.
  34. ↑ J.-C. Tanguy, Ch. Ribière, A. Scarth and W.S. Tjetjep (1998). "Victims from volcanic eruptions: a revised database". Bulletin of Volcanology 60: 137–144. doi:10.1007/s004450050222. http://www.springerlink.com/content/8bn1re4crce6yr8r/. 

External links